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intravenous.

How an infusion reaches a cell — and what the evidence says it does.

intravenous.

intravenous. How an infusion reaches a cell — and what the evidence says it does.

01 The bag

Start with what's in the bag.

One real label, read line by line. Toggle between two common fluids.

Label values: S-02-01 (Baxter labels) · Read this first ↓

T5S-02-01

On Baxter's labels, 0.9% sodium chloride has a calculated osmolarity of 308 mOsmol/L and a nominal pH of 5.0; Lactated Ringer's, 273 mOsmol/L and pH 6.5; and Plasma-Lyte A, 294 mOsmol/L and pH 7.4.

On the Baxter labels, 0.9% sodium chloride has a calculated osmolarity of 308 mOsmol/L and nominal pH 5.0, Lactated Ringer's 273 mOsmol/L and pH 6.5, and Plasma-Lyte A 294 mOsmol/L and pH 7.4. [BaxterLabel-NaCl09; BaxterLabel-LR; BaxterLabel-PlasmaLyteA]

Sources 3
  • BaxterLabel-NaCl09 0.9% Sodium Chloride Injection, USP in VIAFLO Plastic Container (prescribing information, DailyMed) FETCHED
  • BaxterLabel-LR Lactated Ringer's Injection, USP (prescribing information, DailyMed) FETCHED
  • BaxterLabel-PlasmaLyteA PLASMA-LYTE A Injection pH 7.4 (Multiple Electrolytes Injection, Type 1, USP) (prescribing information, DailyMed) FETCHED

T5S-01-01

A drug given into a vein has a bioavailability of 100% by definition, and the IV route is the standard that other ways of giving drugs are measured against.

A drug given intravenously has a bioavailability of 100% by definition, and the IV route is the reference against which other routes are measured. [Price2023; Grogan2023]

Sources 2

T5S-01-02

A drug given into a vein goes straight into the general circulation. It does not need to be absorbed, and it skips the first pass through the gut wall and liver.

An IV drug enters the systemic circulation directly, with no absorption step and no first-pass passage through the gut wall and liver. [Le2026-MerckAbsorb; Le2026-MerckBioavail]

Sources 2

Evidence tiers

T1
Systematic review / meta-analysis of RCTs, or large multicenter RCT
T2
Single RCT (small or single-center) or formal guideline recommendation
T3
Observational / cohort / case series / case reports
T4
Mechanistic / in-vitro / animal / human pharmacokinetic study
T5
Expert opinion / narrative review / regulatory statement (authoritative for law, not for efficacy)

02 Line to vein

Down the line, into a vein.

The cannula sits in the crook of the elbow, in the median cubital vein.

T5S-01-01

A drug given into a vein has a bioavailability of 100% by definition, and the IV route is the standard that other ways of giving drugs are measured against.

A drug given intravenously has a bioavailability of 100% by definition, and the IV route is the reference against which other routes are measured. [Price2023; Grogan2023]

Sources 2

T5S-01-02

A drug given into a vein goes straight into the general circulation. It does not need to be absorbed, and it skips the first pass through the gut wall and liver.

An IV drug enters the systemic circulation directly, with no absorption step and no first-pass passage through the gut wall and liver. [Le2026-MerckAbsorb; Le2026-MerckBioavail]

Sources 2

T5S-01-03

Half-life depends on how widely a substance spreads through the body and how fast the body clears it, not on the route. Giving it IV changes how much arrives and how quickly, not how long it stays.

Half-life is set by volume of distribution and clearance, not by route; giving a substance IV changes how much arrives and how quickly, not how long it stays. [Grogan2023]

Sources 1

T4S-01-13

Vitamin C taken by mouth is absorbed by a transporter that can be filled to capacity, so plasma levels level off; healthy adults are fully saturated at about 1000 milligrams per day.

Oral vitamin C is absorbed by a saturable transporter; plasma concentration plateaus, and healthy adults are fully saturated at about 1000 mg per day. [Levine1996; Lykkesfeldt2019]

Sources 2
  • Levine1996 Vitamin C pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers: evidence for a recommended dietary allowance (1996) FETCHED
  • Lykkesfeldt2019 The Pharmacokinetics of Vitamin C (2019) FETCHED

T4S-01-14

In healthy volunteers, a 1.25-gram dose of vitamin C gave a peak plasma level of about 135 micromoles per liter (µmol/L) when taken by mouth and about 885 µmol/L when given into a vein.

A 1.25 g dose of vitamin C produced a peak plasma concentration of about 135 µmol/L by mouth and about 885 µmol/L intravenously in healthy volunteers. [Padayatty2004]

Sources 1
  • Padayatty2004 Vitamin C pharmacokinetics: implications for oral and intravenous use (2004) FETCHED

T4S-01-15

Even the highest oral vitamin C regimen people can tolerate is predicted to peak near 220 micromoles per liter, whereas doses into a vein can reach millimolar concentrations.

Even the maximum tolerated oral vitamin C regimen is predicted to peak near 220 µmol/L, whereas intravenous doses can reach millimolar concentrations. [Padayatty2004; NIHODS2025-VitC]

Sources 2
  • Padayatty2004 Vitamin C pharmacokinetics: implications for oral and intravenous use (2004) FETCHED
  • NIHODS2025-VitC Vitamin C - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025) FETCHED

T3S-05-04

Catheters placed in the forearm last better than those in the hand or the inside of the elbow, where blockage and accidental removal are more likely.

Catheters placed in the forearm survive better than those in the hand or the crook of the elbow, where occlusion and accidental removal are more likely. [Wallis2014]

Sources 1
  • Wallis2014 Risk Factors for Peripheral Intravenous Catheter Failure: A Multivariate Analysis of Data from a Randomized Controlled Trial (2014) FETCHED
Peak plasma vitamin C after one 1.25 g dose T4 S-01-14

Bar lengths are drawn to scale of the two reported peaks. Values: S-01-14, S-01-15.

03 Circulation

The route through the body.

T5S-01-04

From an arm vein, an infused molecule travels through the superior vena cava (a large vein), the right side of the heart and the lungs before the left side of the heart sends it to the rest of the body.

A molecule infused into an arm vein travels through the superior vena cava, right heart and lungs before the left heart distributes it to the rest of the body. [Betts2022-Ch20]

Sources 1
  • Betts2022-Ch20 Anatomy and Physiology 2e, Section 20.5 Circulatory Pathways (2022) FETCHED

T3S-01-05

In a 1933 study of healthy people, saccharin injected into an arm vein could be tasted on the tongue after about 9–15 seconds.

In a 1933 study, saccharin injected into an arm vein was tasted on the tongue after about 9–15 seconds in normal subjects. [Fishberg1933]

Sources 1
  • Fishberg1933 Measurement of the Circulation Time with Saccharin (1933) FETCHED

T5S-01-03

Half-life depends on how widely a substance spreads through the body and how fast the body clears it, not on the route. Giving it IV changes how much arrives and how quickly, not how long it stays.

Half-life is set by volume of distribution and clearance, not by route; giving a substance IV changes how much arrives and how quickly, not how long it stays. [Grogan2023]

Sources 1

04 Capillary & compartments

Where the water goes.

T5S-01-06

In an average 70-kilogram man, water makes up about 60% of body weight (42 liters). About two-thirds of it is inside cells, and only about 3.5 liters is plasma.

In an average 70 kg man, water is about 60% of body weight (42 L); about two-thirds is inside cells, and only about 3.5 L is plasma. [Tobias2022; Lewis2026-Merck]

Sources 2

T5S-01-07

Water makes up about 60% of body weight in men and about 50% in women, and the share can drop toward 45% in older age.

Total body water is about 60% of body weight in men, about 50% in women, and can fall toward 45% in older age. [Lewis2026-Merck; Betts2022-Ch26]

Sources 2
  • Lewis2026-Merck Water and Sodium Balance (2026) FETCHED
  • Betts2022-Ch26 Anatomy and Physiology 2e, Section 26.1 Body Fluids and Fluid Compartments (2022) FETCHED

T5S-01-11

While an isotonic crystalloid is infused quickly, about 50–60% of the volume is in the bloodstream; after it spreads out through the body, about 15–25% stays there.

During a rapid isotonic crystalloid infusion about 50–60% of the volume is in the bloodstream; after redistribution about 15–25% remains there. [Procter2026-Merck]

Sources 1

T4S-01-12

How much infused crystalloid stays in the bloodstream depends on the circumstances. After anesthesia was started, nearly all of it stayed in the blood vessels for 20 minutes, and its elimination half-life grew from 25–50 minutes to about 13 hours.

How much infused crystalloid stays in the bloodstream depends on context: after anesthesia induction nearly all of it stayed intravascular for 20 minutes, and its elimination half-life lengthened from 25–50 minutes to about 13 hours. [Hahn2020; Hahn2010]

Sources 2
  • Hahn2020 Volume kinetic analysis of fluid retention after induction of general anesthesia (2020) FETCHED
  • Hahn2010 Volume kinetics for infusion fluids (2010) FETCHED

T5S-02-02

Isotonic crystalloids spread through all the fluid space outside cells, and once things settle only about 15 to 25% of the infused volume stays in the blood vessels.

Isotonic crystalloids spread through the whole extracellular space, and at steady state only about 15 to 25% of the infused volume remains in the blood vessels. [Procter2026-IVFluids]

Sources 1
  • Procter2026-IVFluids Intravenous Fluid Resuscitation (Merck Manual Professional Edition) (2026) FETCHED

T4S-02-03

In healthy volunteers given 2 liters over an hour, 12% of 0.9% saline and 14% of Plasma-Lyte 148 remained in the blood vessels at 4 hours; the rest had moved into the interstitial space or left the body.

In healthy volunteers given 2 litres over an hour, 12% of 0.9% saline and 14% of Plasma-Lyte 148 remained intravascular at 4 hours; the rest had moved into the interstitial space or been excreted. [Chowdhury2012]

Sources 1
  • Chowdhury2012 A Randomized, Controlled, Double-Blind Crossover Study on the Effects of 2-L Infusions of 0.9% Saline and Plasma-Lyte 148 on Renal Blood Flow Velocity and Renal Cortical Tissue Perfusion in Healthy Volunteers (2012) FETCHED

T5S-01-10

Under the revised Starling principle, the smallest blood vessels (capillaries) let a little fluid out under steady conditions and do not take interstitial fluid back in for long; the fluid that leaves returns to the blood as lymph.

Under the revised Starling principle, capillaries filter slightly at steady state and do not reabsorb interstitial fluid for long; filtered fluid returns to the blood as lymph. [Levick2010; Woodcock2012]

Sources 2
  • Levick2010 Microvascular fluid exchange and the revised Starling principle (2010) FETCHED
  • Woodcock2012 Revised Starling equation and the glycocalyx model of transvascular fluid exchange: an improved paradigm for prescribing intravenous fluid therapy (2012) FETCHED

T5S-02-15

Sodium is the main positively charged ion in the fluid outside cells and the main thing that sets plasma osmolality; water moves across cell membranes toward the side with the higher effective osmolality.

Sodium is the main extracellular cation and the main determinant of plasma osmolality; water moves across cell membranes toward the compartment with higher effective osmolality. [Lewis2026-WaterSodium]

Sources 1

T5S-02-04

Five percent dextrose is near-isotonic in the bag (252 mOsmol/L, just below plasma osmolality), but once the glucose is used up, the leftover water spreads through all body water, including cells; the label warns it can act as a dilute (hypotonic) fluid.

Five percent dextrose is near-isotonic in the bag (252 mOsmol/L, just below plasma osmolality), but once the glucose is metabolised the remaining water is distributed through total body water, including cells; the label warns it can become physiologically hypotonic. [BaxterLabel-D5W; Procter2026-IVFluids]

Sources 2
  • BaxterLabel-D5W 5% Dextrose Injection, USP (prescribing information, DailyMed) FETCHED
  • Procter2026-IVFluids Intravenous Fluid Resuscitation (Merck Manual Professional Edition) (2026) FETCHED

Where an infused isotonic crystalloid sits

  1. 50–60% in the bloodstream during rapid infusion S-01-11
  2. 15–25% after redistribution S-01-11
  3. 12% / 14% saline / Plasma-Lyte at 4 h in volunteers S-02-03

Total body water ≈60% of body weight (42 L) in an average 70 kg man S-01-06. Bar lengths are illustrative; printed numbers are from the cited statements.

05 The cell

Inside the cell.

Molecular glyphs are schematic icons, not structural models.

T5S-01-19

The sodium–potassium pump uses ATP to move three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions in on each cycle, keeping potassium high and sodium low inside cells.

The sodium–potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase) uses ATP to move three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions in per cycle, keeping potassium high and sodium low inside cells. [Betts2022-Ch26; Chrysafides2023]

Sources 2
  • Betts2022-Ch26 Anatomy and Physiology 2e, Section 26.1 Body Fluids and Fluid Compartments (2022) FETCHED
  • Chrysafides2023 Physiology, Resting Potential (2023) FETCHED

T5S-01-09

Water moves freely across cell membranes so that osmolality evens out between the body's fluid compartments. Aquaporin channels let water through more easily, but the fatty membrane itself also lets water pass.

Water moves freely across cell membranes so that osmolality equalizes between compartments; aquaporin channels increase membrane water permeability, but lipid membranes also pass water on their own. [Lewis2026-Merck; Verkman2008]

Sources 2
  • Lewis2026-Merck Water and Sodium Balance (2026) FETCHED
  • Verkman2008 Mammalian aquaporins: diverse physiological roles and potential clinical significance (2008) FETCHED

T5S-01-08

Normal plasma osmolality, a measure of how concentrated blood plasma is, is roughly 275–295 milliosmoles per kilogram (mOsm/kg), and sodium is the main thing that sets it.

Normal plasma osmolality is roughly 275–295 mOsm/kg, and sodium is its main determinant. [Lewis2026-Merck; Maldonado2023]

Sources 2

T5S-03-09

According to the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements, magnesium is a cofactor in more than 300 enzyme systems; a 2015 review of body physiology puts the figure at over 600.

Magnesium is a cofactor in more than 300 enzyme systems according to the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements; a 2015 physiology review puts the figure at over 600. [ODS-Magnesium-2026; deBaaij2015]

Sources 2
  • ODS-Magnesium-2026 Magnesium - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2026) FETCHED
  • deBaaij2015 Magnesium in man: implications for health and disease (2015) FETCHED

T5S-03-21

Thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin B6 work as coenzymes (enzyme helpers) in energy metabolism, in making nerve-signaling chemicals and in making hemoglobin; B12 and folate supply methyl groups for making red blood cells.

Thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin B6 work as coenzymes — thiamine diphosphate, FAD, NAD and pyridoxal phosphate — in energy metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis and haemoglobin formation; B12 and folate supply methyl groups for red-cell formation. [ODS-Thiamin-2023; ODS-Riboflavin-2022; ODS-Niacin-2022; ODS-B6-2023; ODS-B12-2024; ODS-Folate-2018]

Sources 6

T5S-03-04

Vitamin C is a cofactor for the enzymes that stabilize collagen, and for enzymes that make carnitine and catecholamines.

Vitamin C is a cofactor for the hydroxylase enzymes that stabilise collagen, and for enzymes in carnitine and catecholamine synthesis. [Carr2017; ODS-VitC-2025]

Sources 2
  • Carr2017 Vitamin C and Immune Function (2017) FETCHED
  • ODS-VitC-2025 Vitamin C - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025) FETCHED

T5S-03-22

Vitamin C acts as an electron donor (an antioxidant) and as a cofactor for the enzymes that chemically modify collagen; it is a cofactor for those enzymes, not the catalyst itself.

Vitamin C acts as an electron donor (antioxidant) and as a cofactor for the enzymes that hydroxylate collagen; it is a cofactor for those enzymes, not the catalyst itself. [ODS-VitC-2025; Carr2017]

Sources 2
  • ODS-VitC-2025 Vitamin C - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025) FETCHED
  • Carr2017 Vitamin C and Immune Function (2017) FETCHED

T4S-01-13

Vitamin C taken by mouth is absorbed by a transporter that can be filled to capacity, so plasma levels level off; healthy adults are fully saturated at about 1000 milligrams per day.

Oral vitamin C is absorbed by a saturable transporter; plasma concentration plateaus, and healthy adults are fully saturated at about 1000 mg per day. [Levine1996; Lykkesfeldt2019]

Sources 2
  • Levine1996 Vitamin C pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers: evidence for a recommended dietary allowance (1996) FETCHED
  • Lykkesfeldt2019 The Pharmacokinetics of Vitamin C (2019) FETCHED

T5S-03-01

About 70–90% of vitamin C taken by mouth is absorbed at intakes up to 180 milligrams a day, and absorption falls below 50% above about 1 gram a day.

About 70–90% of oral vitamin C is absorbed at intakes up to 180 mg/day, and absorption falls below 50% above about 1 g/day. [ODS-VitC-2025]

Sources 1
  • ODS-VitC-2025 Vitamin C - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025) FETCHED

T4S-03-02

Vitamin C taken by mouth cannot raise plasma levels much above about 220 micromoles per liter, whereas doses into a vein can reach as high as 26,000 micromoles per liter.

Oral vitamin C cannot raise plasma levels much above about 220 µmol/L, whereas intravenous dosing can reach as high as 26,000 µmol/L. [ODS-VitC-2025]

Sources 1
  • ODS-VitC-2025 Vitamin C - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025) FETCHED

06 Body target map

Where each substance acts — and what the evidence says.

Two lanes on every card: E for established clinical use, W for elective / wellness use.

E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE
Anterior figure with the twelve body regions marked: Bloodstream (plasma), Heart and vessels, Lungs, Brain and nervous system, Liver, Kidneys, Gut (what IV skips — and when that matters), Skin, collagen and vessel walls, Muscle and performance, Bone marrow and blood cells, Immune system, Peripheral nerves.

Choose a region: select a dot on the figure or a row below.Choose a region below.

  1. Bloodstream (plasma)2 substances
    Isotonic crystalloid (0.9% NaCl, Lactated Ringer's, Plasma-Lyte) E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    Claims about hydration drips for healthy adults who can drink: NOT SUPPORTED Evidence matrix row row 1

    T5S-01-11

    While an isotonic crystalloid is infused quickly, about 50–60% of the volume is in the bloodstream; after it spreads out through the body, about 15–25% stays there.

    During a rapid isotonic crystalloid infusion about 50–60% of the volume is in the bloodstream; after redistribution about 15–25% remains there. [Procter2026-Merck]

    Sources 1

    T4S-01-12

    How much infused crystalloid stays in the bloodstream depends on the circumstances. After anesthesia was started, nearly all of it stayed in the blood vessels for 20 minutes, and its elimination half-life grew from 25–50 minutes to about 13 hours.

    How much infused crystalloid stays in the bloodstream depends on context: after anesthesia induction nearly all of it stayed intravascular for 20 minutes, and its elimination half-life lengthened from 25–50 minutes to about 13 hours. [Hahn2020; Hahn2010]

    Sources 2
    • Hahn2020 Volume kinetic analysis of fluid retention after induction of general anesthesia (2020) FETCHED
    • Hahn2010 Volume kinetics for infusion fluids (2010) FETCHED

    T5S-02-02

    Isotonic crystalloids spread through all the fluid space outside cells, and once things settle only about 15 to 25% of the infused volume stays in the blood vessels.

    Isotonic crystalloids spread through the whole extracellular space, and at steady state only about 15 to 25% of the infused volume remains in the blood vessels. [Procter2026-IVFluids]

    Sources 1
    • Procter2026-IVFluids Intravenous Fluid Resuscitation (Merck Manual Professional Edition) (2026) FETCHED

    T4S-02-03

    In healthy volunteers given 2 liters over an hour, 12% of 0.9% saline and 14% of Plasma-Lyte 148 remained in the blood vessels at 4 hours; the rest had moved into the interstitial space or left the body.

    In healthy volunteers given 2 litres over an hour, 12% of 0.9% saline and 14% of Plasma-Lyte 148 remained intravascular at 4 hours; the rest had moved into the interstitial space or been excreted. [Chowdhury2012]

    Sources 1
    • Chowdhury2012 A Randomized, Controlled, Double-Blind Crossover Study on the Effects of 2-L Infusions of 0.9% Saline and Plasma-Lyte 148 on Renal Blood Flow Velocity and Renal Cortical Tissue Perfusion in Healthy Volunteers (2012) FETCHED

    T5S-02-14

    IV rehydration is called for when fluid losses are severe, when the circulation is impaired, or when replacing fluid by mouth is impractical; mild to moderate dehydration in a conscious person who is not vomiting is managed with fluids by mouth.

    IV rehydration is indicated when deficits are severe, when there is circulatory compromise, or when oral replacement is impractical; mild to moderate dehydration in a conscious, non-vomiting person is treated by mouth. [Lewis2026-VolumeDepletion; Cellucci2025-DehydrationChildren]

    Sources 2

    T2S-04-01

    In crossover trials, in which dehydrated athletes tried both methods, rehydrating by mouth or by vein made no significant difference to exercise performance, and fluids by mouth kept core body temperature lower.

    In crossover trials of dehydrated athletes, oral and intravenous rehydration produced no significant difference in exercise performance, and oral fluid kept core temperature lower. [Casa2000-MSSE; Castellani1997]

    Sources 2
    • Casa2000-MSSE Intravenous versus oral rehydration during a brief period: responses to subsequent exercise in the heat (2000) FETCHED
    • Castellani1997 Intravenous vs. oral rehydration: effects on subsequent exercise-heat stress (1997) FETCHED

    T5S-04-02

    No randomized trial has shown that an elective, by-choice IV 'hydration' infusion benefits a healthy adult who is able to drink.

    No randomized trial has shown that an elective IV 'hydration' infusion benefits a healthy adult who is able to drink. [vanRosendal2010; ShaneMcWhorter2025-Merck]

    Sources 2
    • vanRosendal2010 Intravenous versus oral rehydration in athletes (2010) FETCHED
    • ShaneMcWhorter2025-Merck Intravenous Vitamin Therapy (Myers' Cocktail) - Merck Manual Consumer Version (2025) FETCHED

    T1S-02-13

    For children with gastroenteritis, rehydration by mouth and by vein showed no clinically important difference; about 1 in 25 given fluids by mouth needed IV rescue, while IV lines caused more vein inflammation (phlebitis).

    For children with gastroenteritis, oral and intravenous rehydration showed no clinically important difference; about 1 in 25 given oral fluids needed IV rescue, while IV lines caused more phlebitis. [Hartling2006]

    Sources 1
    • Hartling2006 Oral versus intravenous rehydration for treating dehydration due to gastroenteritis in children (2006) FETCHED
    Balanced vs saline E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T4S-02-08

    In healthy volunteers, two liters of 0.9% saline raised blood chloride above the normal range for hours and briefly cut blood flow to the outer layer of the kidneys by about 12%; a balanced solution did not.

    Two litres of 0.9% saline in healthy volunteers raised serum chloride above the normal range for hours and transiently reduced renal cortical perfusion by about 12%; a balanced solution did not. [Chowdhury2012]

    Sources 1
    • Chowdhury2012 A Randomized, Controlled, Double-Blind Crossover Study on the Effects of 2-L Infusions of 0.9% Saline and Plasma-Lyte 148 on Renal Blood Flow Velocity and Renal Cortical Tissue Perfusion in Healthy Volunteers (2012) FETCHED

    T1S-02-09

    In six large trials combined (34,450 patients), balanced crystalloids versus saline gave a 90-day death relative risk of 0.96 (95% confidence interval 0.91 to 1.01): possibly a small benefit, but the interval does not rule out none.

    Across six large trials (34,450 patients), balanced crystalloids compared with saline gave a pooled 90-day mortality relative risk of 0.96 (95% CI 0.91 to 1.01): a possible small benefit that the confidence interval does not exclude being zero. [Hammond2022]

    Sources 1
    • Hammond2022 Balanced Crystalloids versus Saline in Critically Ill Adults - A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis (2022) FETCHED

    T1S-02-10

    Two large double-blind trials, BaSICS (11,052 patients) and PLUS (5,037 patients), found no difference in death rates at 90 days between Plasma-Lyte 148 and 0.9% saline.

    Two large double-blind trials, BaSICS (11,052 patients) and PLUS (5,037 patients), found no difference in 90-day mortality between Plasma-Lyte 148 and 0.9% saline. [Zampieri2021-BaSICS; Finfer2022-PLUS]

    Sources 2
    • Zampieri2021-BaSICS Effect of Intravenous Fluid Treatment With a Balanced Solution vs 0.9% Saline Solution on Mortality in Critically Ill Patients: The BaSICS Randomized Clinical Trial (2021) FETCHED
    • Finfer2022-PLUS Balanced Multielectrolyte Solution versus Saline in Critically Ill Adults (2022) FETCHED

    T5S-02-01

    On Baxter's labels, 0.9% sodium chloride has a calculated osmolarity of 308 mOsmol/L and a nominal pH of 5.0; Lactated Ringer's, 273 mOsmol/L and pH 6.5; and Plasma-Lyte A, 294 mOsmol/L and pH 7.4.

    On the Baxter labels, 0.9% sodium chloride has a calculated osmolarity of 308 mOsmol/L and nominal pH 5.0, Lactated Ringer's 273 mOsmol/L and pH 6.5, and Plasma-Lyte A 294 mOsmol/L and pH 7.4. [BaxterLabel-NaCl09; BaxterLabel-LR; BaxterLabel-PlasmaLyteA]

    Sources 3
    • BaxterLabel-NaCl09 0.9% Sodium Chloride Injection, USP in VIAFLO Plastic Container (prescribing information, DailyMed) FETCHED
    • BaxterLabel-LR Lactated Ringer's Injection, USP (prescribing information, DailyMed) FETCHED
    • BaxterLabel-PlasmaLyteA PLASMA-LYTE A Injection pH 7.4 (Multiple Electrolytes Injection, Type 1, USP) (prescribing information, DailyMed) FETCHED
  2. Heart and vessels4 substances
    Route of travel E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T5S-01-04

    From an arm vein, an infused molecule travels through the superior vena cava (a large vein), the right side of the heart and the lungs before the left side of the heart sends it to the rest of the body.

    A molecule infused into an arm vein travels through the superior vena cava, right heart and lungs before the left heart distributes it to the rest of the body. [Betts2022-Ch20]

    Sources 1
    • Betts2022-Ch20 Anatomy and Physiology 2e, Section 20.5 Circulatory Pathways (2022) FETCHED

    T3S-01-05

    In a 1933 study of healthy people, saccharin injected into an arm vein could be tasted on the tongue after about 9–15 seconds.

    In a 1933 study, saccharin injected into an arm vein was tasted on the tongue after about 9–15 seconds in normal subjects. [Fishberg1933]

    Sources 1
    • Fishberg1933 Measurement of the Circulation Time with Saccharin (1933) FETCHED
    Magnesium sulfate E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T5S-03-09

    According to the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements, magnesium is a cofactor in more than 300 enzyme systems; a 2015 review of body physiology puts the figure at over 600.

    Magnesium is a cofactor in more than 300 enzyme systems according to the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements; a 2015 physiology review puts the figure at over 600. [ODS-Magnesium-2026; deBaaij2015]

    Sources 2
    • ODS-Magnesium-2026 Magnesium - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2026) FETCHED
    • deBaaij2015 Magnesium in man: implications for health and disease (2015) FETCHED

    T1S-03-10

    In women with pre-eclampsia, magnesium sulfate given into a vein cuts the risk of eclampsia by more than half (relative risk 0.41; 95% confidence interval 0.29–0.58).

    Intravenous magnesium sulfate reduces the risk of eclampsia in women with pre-eclampsia by more than half (RR 0.41, 95% CI 0.29–0.58). [Duley2010; Altman2002-Magpie]

    Sources 2
    • Duley2010 Magnesium sulphate and other anticonvulsants for women with pre-eclampsia (2010) FETCHED
    • Altman2002-Magpie Do women with pre-eclampsia, and their babies, benefit from magnesium sulphate? The Magpie Trial: a randomised placebo-controlled trial (2002) FETCHED

    T1S-03-11

    In adults with an acute asthma attack in the emergency department, a single IV magnesium sulfate infusion reduced hospital admission (odds ratio 0.75; 95% confidence interval 0.60–0.92), about seven fewer admissions per 100 treated.

    In adults with acute asthma in the emergency department, a single IV magnesium sulfate infusion reduced hospital admission (OR 0.75, 95% CI 0.60–0.92), about seven fewer admissions per 100 treated. [Kew2014]

    Sources 1
    • Kew2014 Intravenous magnesium sulfate for treating adults with acute asthma in the emergency department (2014) FETCHED

    T1S-03-12

    A combined analysis of 11 randomized trials found that IV magnesium relieved migraine attacks at 15–45 minutes, 2 hours and 24 hours, although some of the trials were not properly randomized.

    A meta-analysis of 11 randomised trials found IV magnesium relieved acute migraine at 15–45 minutes, 2 hours and 24 hours, although some trials had inadequate randomisation. [Chiu2016]

    Sources 1
    • Chiu2016 Effects of Intravenous and Oral Magnesium on Reducing Migraine: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials (2016) FETCHED

    T1S-04-13

    Combined analyses of IV magnesium for migraine attacks in emergency departments disagree, and it is not among the American Headache Society's Level B first-line injectable treatments.

    Meta-analyses of IV magnesium for acute migraine in emergency departments disagree, and it is not among the American Headache Society's Level B first-line injectable treatments. [Chiu2016; Choi2014; Orr2016]

    Sources 3
    • Chiu2016 Effects of Intravenous and Oral Magnesium on Reducing Migraine: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials (2016) FETCHED
    • Choi2014 The use of intravenous magnesium sulphate for acute migraine: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (2014) FETCHED
    • Orr2016 Management of Adults With Acute Migraine in the Emergency Department: The American Headache Society Evidence Assessment of Parenteral Pharmacotherapies (2016) FETCHED

    T5S-05-10

    As blood magnesium rises, reflexes disappear and breathing can stop; IV magnesium requires monitoring and injectable calcium on hand, and it is hazardous in people with reduced kidney function.

    As blood magnesium rises, reflexes disappear and breathing can stop; IV magnesium requires monitoring and injectable calcium at hand, and is hazardous in kidney impairment. [MgSO4-Label-US; ODS-Magnesium]

    Sources 2
    • MgSO4-Label-US Magnesium Sulfate Injection, USP - Prescribing Information (Precautions and Overdosage) (2026) FETCHED
    • ODS-Magnesium Magnesium - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2026) FETCHED

    T5S-02-18

    Low potassium and low calcium are often hard to correct until magnesium has been brought back up to normal.

    Low potassium and low calcium are often difficult to correct until magnesium has been repleted. [Lewis2025-Hypomagnesemia; Lewis2025-Hypokalemia]

    Sources 2
    Potassium chloride E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T5S-02-17

    The label limits potassium given through a peripheral IV to 10 mEq per hour and 40 mEq per liter, because faster or more concentrated infusion risks the heart stopping and injury to the vein.

    Peripheral IV potassium is limited on the label to 10 mEq per hour and 40 mEq per litre, because faster or more concentrated infusion risks cardiac arrest and vein injury. [BBraunLabel-KClNaCl; Lewis2025-Hypokalemia]

    Sources 2
    • BBraunLabel-KClNaCl Potassium Chloride in 0.9% Sodium Chloride Injection (20 mEq K+/L) (prescribing information, DailyMed) FETCHED
    • Lewis2025-Hypokalemia Hypokalemia (Merck Manual Professional Edition) (2025) FETCHED

    T5S-05-09

    IV potassium is a high-alert medicine: it must be diluted, and when the need is not urgent it should not be given faster than 10 mEq per hour.

    Intravenous potassium is a high-alert medicine: it must be diluted, and non-urgent infusion should not exceed 10 mEq per hour. [KCl-Label; ISMP2024]

    Sources 2
    • KCl-Label Potassium Chloride for Injection Concentrate, USP - Prescribing Information (Dosage and Administration) (2026) FETCHED
    • ISMP2024 High-Alert Medications in Acute Care Settings (ISMP list, 2024, as hosted by ECRI) (2024) FETCHED
    IV iron (ferric carboxymaltose) E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T1S-03-17

    In patients hospitalized for acute heart failure who had iron deficiency, IV ferric carboxymaltose reduced total heart-failure hospital admissions (relative risk 0.74) but did not reduce deaths from heart and blood-vessel causes.

    In patients hospitalised for acute heart failure with iron deficiency, IV ferric carboxymaltose reduced total heart-failure hospitalisations (RR 0.74) but did not reduce cardiovascular death. [Ponikowski2020-AFFIRM]

    Sources 1
    • Ponikowski2020-AFFIRM Ferric carboxymaltose for iron deficiency at discharge after acute heart failure: a multicentre, double-blind, randomised, controlled trial (2020) FETCHED

    T5S-03-18

    FDA states that all IV iron products carry a risk of anaphylaxis (a severe allergic reaction); for ferumoxytol, FDA identified 79 anaphylaxis cases, 18 of them fatal, over five years.

    FDA states that all intravenous iron products carry a risk of anaphylaxis; for ferumoxytol it identified 79 anaphylaxis cases, 18 of them fatal, over five years. [FDA-Feraheme-2015]

    Sources 1
    • FDA-Feraheme-2015 FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA strengthens warnings and changes prescribing instructions to decrease the risk of serious allergic reactions with anemia drug Feraheme (ferumoxytol) (2015) FETCHED

    T5S-05-15

    IV iron can cause anaphylaxis (a severe allergic reaction); ferumoxytol carries a boxed warning requiring a 15-minute infusion, 30 minutes of observation and immediate access to resuscitation.

    IV iron can cause anaphylaxis; ferumoxytol carries a boxed warning requiring a 15-minute infusion, 30 minutes of observation and immediate access to resuscitation. [Feraheme-Label; Wang2015]

    Sources 2
    • Feraheme-Label FERAHEME (ferumoxytol injection) - Prescribing Information (2026) FETCHED
    • Wang2015 Comparative Risk of Anaphylactic Reactions Associated With Intravenous Iron Products (2015) FETCHED
  3. Lungs2 substances
    Any IV fluid (volume) E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T5S-05-08

    Giving fluid faster or in larger amounts than the heart and kidneys can handle causes fluid buildup in the lungs (pulmonary edema); people with heart failure or kidney disease are most at risk.

    Giving fluid faster or in greater volume than the heart and kidneys can handle causes pulmonary oedema; people with heart failure or kidney disease are most at risk. [NICE-CG174; ClaureDelGranado2016]

    Sources 2
    • NICE-CG174 Intravenous fluid therapy in adults in hospital (Clinical guideline CG174) (2013) FETCHED
    • ClaureDelGranado2016 Fluid overload in the ICU: evaluation and management (2016) FETCHED

    T1S-02-12

    IV fluid has real effects: in 3,141 children with an illness with fever and poor circulation, a rapid fluid infusion (bolus) raised the death rate at 48 hours compared with no bolus (relative risk 1.45; 95% confidence interval 1.13 to 1.86).

    IV fluid is not inert: in 3,141 children with febrile illness and impaired perfusion, a fluid bolus increased 48-hour mortality compared with no bolus (relative risk 1.45, 95% CI 1.13 to 1.86). [Maitland2011-FEAST]

    Sources 1
    • Maitland2011-FEAST Mortality after fluid bolus in African children with severe infection (2011) FETCHED
    Magnesium sulfate (asthma) E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T1S-03-11

    In adults with an acute asthma attack in the emergency department, a single IV magnesium sulfate infusion reduced hospital admission (odds ratio 0.75; 95% confidence interval 0.60–0.92), about seven fewer admissions per 100 treated.

    In adults with acute asthma in the emergency department, a single IV magnesium sulfate infusion reduced hospital admission (OR 0.75, 95% CI 0.60–0.92), about seven fewer admissions per 100 treated. [Kew2014]

    Sources 1
    • Kew2014 Intravenous magnesium sulfate for treating adults with acute asthma in the emergency department (2014) FETCHED

    T1S-02-19

    IV magnesium sulfate has Tier-1 evidence in eclampsia (fewer deaths of mothers and fewer repeat seizures than with diazepam) and in acute asthma not relieved by first-line treatment (about 7 fewer hospital admissions per 100 adults treated).

    IV magnesium sulfate has Tier-1 evidence in eclampsia (fewer maternal deaths and recurrent seizures than diazepam) and in acute asthma not relieved by first-line treatment (about 7 fewer hospital admissions per 100 adults treated). [Duley2022; Kew2014]

    Sources 2
    • Duley2022 Magnesium sulphate versus diazepam for eclampsia (2022) FETCHED
    • Kew2014 Intravenous magnesium sulfate for treating adults with acute asthma in the emergency department (2014) FETCHED
  4. Brain and nervous system4 substances
    Thiamine (B1) E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T2S-03-05

    For Wernicke encephalopathy, the EFNS guideline recommends thiamine 200 milligrams three times a day, preferably into a vein, given before any carbohydrate.

    For Wernicke encephalopathy, the EFNS guideline recommends thiamine 200 mg three times daily, preferably intravenously, given before any carbohydrate. [Galvin2010]

    Sources 1
    • Galvin2010 EFNS guidelines for diagnosis, therapy and prevention of Wernicke encephalopathy (2010) FETCHED

    T1S-03-06

    A Cochrane review found that evidence from randomized trials is not enough to define the dose, route or length of thiamine treatment for Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.

    A Cochrane review found that randomised-trial evidence is insufficient to define the dose, route or duration of thiamine for Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. [Day2013]

    Sources 1
    • Day2013 Thiamine for prevention and treatment of Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome in people who abuse alcohol (2013) FETCHED

    T3S-05-13

    In a study that tracked doses as they were given, IV thiamine caused a reaction of any kind in 1.1% of 1,070 doses and a major reaction in 0.09%.

    In a prospective series, IV thiamine caused any reaction in 1.1% of 1,070 doses and a major reaction in 0.09%. [Wrenn1989]

    Sources 1
    • Wrenn1989 A toxicity study of parenteral thiamine hydrochloride (1989) FETCHED

    T2S-02-20

    Refeeding syndrome is defined by a drop in phosphate, potassium and/or magnesium within 5 days of restarting nutrition; high-risk patients are started at no more than 10 kilocalories per kilogram per day, with thiamin and electrolyte supplements.

    Refeeding syndrome is defined by a fall in phosphate, potassium and/or magnesium within 5 days of restarting nutrition; high-risk patients are started at no more than 10 kcal/kg/day with thiamin and electrolyte supplementation. [daSilva2020-ASPEN; NICE2006-CG32]

    Sources 2
    • daSilva2020-ASPEN ASPEN Consensus Recommendations for Refeeding Syndrome (2020) FETCHED
    • NICE2006-CG32 Nutrition support for adults: oral nutrition support, enteral tube feeding and parenteral nutrition (Clinical guideline CG32) - Recommendations chapter (2006) FETCHED
    Vitamin B12 E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    Claims about B12 for energy in people who are not deficient: INSUFFICIENT Evidence matrix row row 3b

    T1S-03-07

    Low-quality evidence shows that vitamin B12 by mouth at 1,000–2,000 micrograms a day and B12 injected into muscle have similar effects on blood B12 levels.

    Low-quality evidence shows oral vitamin B12 at 1,000–2,000 µg/day and intramuscular B12 have similar effects on serum B12 levels. [Wang2018]

    Sources 1
    • Wang2018 Oral vitamin B12 versus intramuscular vitamin B12 for vitamin B12 deficiency (2018) FETCHED

    T2S-03-08

    The label for cyanocobalamin injection advises against giving it into a vein, because almost all of an IV dose is lost in the urine.

    The cyanocobalamin injection label advises avoiding the intravenous route because almost all of an IV dose is lost in the urine. [DailyMed-Cyanocobalamin]

    Sources 1

    T1S-04-05

    In adults who are not deficient in B12, taking extra B12 has not been shown to improve energy, thinking or mood.

    In adults without B12 deficiency, B12 supplementation has not been shown to improve energy, cognition or mood. [Markun2021; NIH-ODS-B12-2024]

    Sources 2
    • Markun2021 Effects of Vitamin B12 Supplementation on Cognitive Function, Depressive Symptoms, and Fatigue: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Meta-Regression (2021) FETCHED
    • NIH-ODS-B12-2024 Vitamin B12: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals (2024) FETCHED

    T5S-05-14

    Injectable vitamin B12 is labeled for injection into muscle or under the skin; the label says to avoid giving it into a vein because almost all of the dose is lost in urine.

    Injectable vitamin B12 is labelled for intramuscular or subcutaneous use; the label says to avoid the IV route because almost all of the dose is lost in urine. [Cyanocobalamin-Label]

    Sources 1
    • Cyanocobalamin-Label Cyanocobalamin Injection, USP 1,000 mcg/mL - Prescribing Information (Gland Pharma) (2026) FETCHED
    NAD+ W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

    Claims about NAD+ drips for energy, cognition or anti-aging: INSUFFICIENT Evidence matrix row row 3c

    T4S-03-15

    In the only published human study of IV NAD+, plasma NAD+ did not rise during the first 2 hours of a 6-hour, 750-milligram infusion; the study enrolled 11 men and was partly funded by a company linked to an IV-NAD+ clinic.

    In the only published human study of IV NAD+, plasma NAD+ did not rise during the first 2 hours of a 6-hour 750 mg infusion; the study enrolled 11 men and was co-funded by a company linked to an IV-NAD+ clinic. [Grant2019]

    Sources 1
    • Grant2019 A Pilot Study Investigating Changes in the Human Plasma and Urine NAD+ Metabolome During a 6 Hour Intravenous Infusion of NAD+ (2019) FETCHED

    T4S-04-06

    For IV NAD+, the only human data are on how the body handles it; no randomized trial has tested whether it improves any health outcome.

    Intravenous NAD+ has human pharmacokinetic data only; no randomized trial has tested whether it improves any clinical outcome. [Grant2019; Godic2026]

    Sources 2
    • Grant2019 A Pilot Study Investigating Changes in the Human Plasma and Urine NAD+ Metabolome During a 6 Hour Intravenous Infusion of NAD+ (2019) FETCHED
    • Godic2026 Intravenous longevity therapy: a critical review of evidence, mechanisms, and clinical utility (2026) FETCHED

    T4S-05-17

    The one controlled human study of a 6-hour, 750-milligram NAD+ infusion reported no adverse events in 8 volunteers; it was small and partly funded by industry.

    The one controlled human study of a 6-hour, 750 mg NAD+ infusion reported no adverse events in 8 volunteers; it was small and industry co-funded. [Grant2019]

    Sources 1
    • Grant2019 A Pilot Study Investigating Changes in the Human Plasma and Urine NAD+ Metabolome During a 6 Hour Intravenous Infusion of NAD+ (2019) FETCHED
    Sodium (correction speed) E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T2S-02-16

    Raising low blood sodium too quickly can cause osmotic demyelination. Reference guidance limits the rise to no more than 8 mEq/L in the first 24 hours, and a rise of 4 to 6 mmol/L is enough to reverse the most dangerous symptoms.

    Correcting low sodium too quickly can cause osmotic demyelination; reference guidance limits the rise to no more than 8 mEq/L in the first 24 hours, and a rise of 4 to 6 mmol/L is enough to reverse the most dangerous symptoms. [Lewis2025-Hyponatremia; Verbalis2013]

    Sources 2
    • Lewis2025-Hyponatremia Hyponatremia (Merck Manual Professional Edition) (2025) FETCHED
    • Verbalis2013 Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of Hyponatremia: Expert Panel Recommendations (2013) FETCHED
  5. Liver3 substances
    First-pass bypass E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T5S-01-01

    A drug given into a vein has a bioavailability of 100% by definition, and the IV route is the standard that other ways of giving drugs are measured against.

    A drug given intravenously has a bioavailability of 100% by definition, and the IV route is the reference against which other routes are measured. [Price2023; Grogan2023]

    Sources 2

    T5S-01-02

    A drug given into a vein goes straight into the general circulation. It does not need to be absorbed, and it skips the first pass through the gut wall and liver.

    An IV drug enters the systemic circulation directly, with no absorption step and no first-pass passage through the gut wall and liver. [Le2026-MerckAbsorb; Le2026-MerckBioavail]

    Sources 2

    T5S-01-03

    Half-life depends on how widely a substance spreads through the body and how fast the body clears it, not on the route. Giving it IV changes how much arrives and how quickly, not how long it stays.

    Half-life is set by volume of distribution and clearance, not by route; giving a substance IV changes how much arrives and how quickly, not how long it stays. [Grogan2023]

    Sources 1
    Glutathione W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

    Claims about glutathione drips for detox or skin: NOT SUPPORTED Evidence matrix row rows 6, 9

    T4S-03-13

    A single 3-gram dose of glutathione by mouth did not raise plasma glutathione in healthy volunteers; almost none of it reaches the general circulation when taken by mouth.

    A single 3 g oral dose of glutathione did not raise plasma glutathione in healthy volunteers; its oral systemic availability is negligible. [Witschi1992]

    Sources 1
    • Witschi1992 The systemic availability of oral glutathione (1992) FETCHED

    T2S-03-14

    In a 21-patient randomized pilot trial in Parkinson's disease, IV glutathione at 1,400 milligrams three times a week did not improve symptoms significantly more than placebo.

    In a 21-patient randomised pilot trial in Parkinson's disease, IV glutathione 1,400 mg three times weekly did not improve symptoms significantly more than placebo. [Hauser2009]

    Sources 1
    • Hauser2009 Randomized, double-blind, pilot evaluation of intravenous glutathione in Parkinson's disease (2009) FETCHED

    T1S-04-12

    Systematic reviews found no adequate trial supporting IV glutathione for skin lightening; the one small IV trial did not show a significant effect, and its effect faded within six months.

    Systematic reviews found no adequate trial supporting intravenous glutathione for skin lightening; the one small IV trial was not significant and its effect faded within six months. [Sonthalia2016; Sitohang2020]

    Sources 2
    • Sonthalia2016 Glutathione as a skin whitening agent: Facts, myths, evidence and controversies (2016) FETCHED
    • Sitohang2020 Systemic Glutathione as a Skin-Whitening Agent in Adult (2020) FETCHED

    T5S-05-16

    Compounded IV glutathione made from a dietary-supplement-grade ingredient caused endotoxin reactions in eight patients, and there are no clinical trials of IV glutathione for skin lightening.

    Compounded IV glutathione made from a dietary-supplement-grade ingredient caused endotoxin reactions in eight patients, and there are no clinical trials of IV glutathione for skin lightening. [FDA2019-Glutathione; Sonthalia2016]

    Sources 2
    • FDA2019-Glutathione FDA highlights concerns with using dietary ingredient glutathione to compound sterile injectables (2019) FETCHED
    • Sonthalia2016 Glutathione as a skin whitening agent: Facts, myths, evidence and controversies (2016) FETCHED
    Chelation (EDTA) W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

    Claims about chelation or detox drips: NOT SUPPORTED Evidence matrix row row 9

    T1S-04-15

    The large TACT2 trial found no heart or blood-vessel benefit from 40 EDTA chelation infusions in patients with diabetes and a past heart attack, even though their blood lead fell by 61%.

    The large TACT2 trial found no cardiovascular benefit from 40 EDTA chelation infusions in patients with diabetes and prior heart attack, despite a 61% fall in blood lead. [Lamas2024-TACT2]

    Sources 1
    • Lamas2024-TACT2 Edetate disodium-based chelation for patients with a previous myocardial infarction and diabetes: TACT2 randomized clinical trial (as summarised by NCCIH) (2024) FETCHED
  6. Kidneys3 substances
    Water-soluble vitamins (excess) E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T5S-01-17

    Absorbed vitamin C that the body does not use leaves the body in urine; the same is true of riboflavin.

    Absorbed vitamin C that the body does not use is excreted in urine; this is also true of riboflavin. [NIHODS2025-VitC; NIHODS2022-Riboflavin]

    Sources 2

    T5S-05-11

    The FDA label for IV vitamin C warns of kidney injury from oxalate, breakdown of red blood cells (hemolysis) in people with G6PD deficiency, and false glucose-meter readings for up to 24 hours.

    The FDA label for IV vitamin C warns of oxalate kidney injury, haemolysis in G6PD deficiency and false glucose-meter readings for up to 24 hours. [Ascor-Label]

    Sources 1
    • Ascor-Label ASCOR (ascorbic acid injection) for intravenous use - Prescribing Information (NDA 209112) (2017) FETCHED

    T3S-05-12

    High-dose IV vitamin C has caused massive breakdown of red blood cells and kidney failure needing dialysis in a patient with G6PD deficiency, and dangerously false high glucose readings that led to an insulin-induced coma in a dialysis patient.

    High-dose IV vitamin C has caused massive haemolysis and dialysis-requiring kidney failure in a patient with G6PD deficiency, and dangerously false high glucose readings leading to insulin-induced coma in a dialysis patient. [Rees2018; Lachance2021]

    Sources 2
    • Rees2018 Massive oxidative haemolysis and renal failure caused by high dose vitamin C (2018) FETCHED
    • Lachance2021 High-dose vitamin-C induced prolonged factitious hyperglycemia in a peritoneal dialysis patient: a case report (2021) FETCHED
    0.9% saline (chloride load) E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T4S-02-08

    In healthy volunteers, two liters of 0.9% saline raised blood chloride above the normal range for hours and briefly cut blood flow to the outer layer of the kidneys by about 12%; a balanced solution did not.

    Two litres of 0.9% saline in healthy volunteers raised serum chloride above the normal range for hours and transiently reduced renal cortical perfusion by about 12%; a balanced solution did not. [Chowdhury2012]

    Sources 1
    • Chowdhury2012 A Randomized, Controlled, Double-Blind Crossover Study on the Effects of 2-L Infusions of 0.9% Saline and Plasma-Lyte 148 on Renal Blood Flow Velocity and Renal Cortical Tissue Perfusion in Healthy Volunteers (2012) FETCHED
    Magnesium / potassium in renal impairment E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T5S-05-10

    As blood magnesium rises, reflexes disappear and breathing can stop; IV magnesium requires monitoring and injectable calcium on hand, and it is hazardous in people with reduced kidney function.

    As blood magnesium rises, reflexes disappear and breathing can stop; IV magnesium requires monitoring and injectable calcium at hand, and is hazardous in kidney impairment. [MgSO4-Label-US; ODS-Magnesium]

    Sources 2
    • MgSO4-Label-US Magnesium Sulfate Injection, USP - Prescribing Information (Precautions and Overdosage) (2026) FETCHED
    • ODS-Magnesium Magnesium - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2026) FETCHED

    T5S-05-09

    IV potassium is a high-alert medicine: it must be diluted, and when the need is not urgent it should not be given faster than 10 mEq per hour.

    Intravenous potassium is a high-alert medicine: it must be diluted, and non-urgent infusion should not exceed 10 mEq per hour. [KCl-Label; ISMP2024]

    Sources 2
    • KCl-Label Potassium Chloride for Injection Concentrate, USP - Prescribing Information (Dosage and Administration) (2026) FETCHED
    • ISMP2024 High-Alert Medications in Acute Care Settings (ISMP list, 2024, as hosted by ECRI) (2024) FETCHED
  7. Gut (what IV skips — and when that matters)3 substances
    Vitamin C (oral ceiling) E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    Claims about high-dose IV vitamin C for immunity, energy or cancer: INSUFFICIENT Evidence matrix row rows 3d, 4a, 5 (sepsis: NOT SUPPORTED, harm signal, row 4c)

    T5S-03-01

    About 70–90% of vitamin C taken by mouth is absorbed at intakes up to 180 milligrams a day, and absorption falls below 50% above about 1 gram a day.

    About 70–90% of oral vitamin C is absorbed at intakes up to 180 mg/day, and absorption falls below 50% above about 1 g/day. [ODS-VitC-2025]

    Sources 1
    • ODS-VitC-2025 Vitamin C - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025) FETCHED

    T4S-03-02

    Vitamin C taken by mouth cannot raise plasma levels much above about 220 micromoles per liter, whereas doses into a vein can reach as high as 26,000 micromoles per liter.

    Oral vitamin C cannot raise plasma levels much above about 220 µmol/L, whereas intravenous dosing can reach as high as 26,000 µmol/L. [ODS-VitC-2025]

    Sources 1
    • ODS-VitC-2025 Vitamin C - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025) FETCHED

    T4S-01-13

    Vitamin C taken by mouth is absorbed by a transporter that can be filled to capacity, so plasma levels level off; healthy adults are fully saturated at about 1000 milligrams per day.

    Oral vitamin C is absorbed by a saturable transporter; plasma concentration plateaus, and healthy adults are fully saturated at about 1000 mg per day. [Levine1996; Lykkesfeldt2019]

    Sources 2
    • Levine1996 Vitamin C pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers: evidence for a recommended dietary allowance (1996) FETCHED
    • Lykkesfeldt2019 The Pharmacokinetics of Vitamin C (2019) FETCHED

    T4S-01-14

    In healthy volunteers, a 1.25-gram dose of vitamin C gave a peak plasma level of about 135 micromoles per liter (µmol/L) when taken by mouth and about 885 µmol/L when given into a vein.

    A 1.25 g dose of vitamin C produced a peak plasma concentration of about 135 µmol/L by mouth and about 885 µmol/L intravenously in healthy volunteers. [Padayatty2004]

    Sources 1
    • Padayatty2004 Vitamin C pharmacokinetics: implications for oral and intravenous use (2004) FETCHED

    T4S-01-15

    Even the highest oral vitamin C regimen people can tolerate is predicted to peak near 220 micromoles per liter, whereas doses into a vein can reach millimolar concentrations.

    Even the maximum tolerated oral vitamin C regimen is predicted to peak near 220 µmol/L, whereas intravenous doses can reach millimolar concentrations. [Padayatty2004; NIHODS2025-VitC]

    Sources 2
    • Padayatty2004 Vitamin C pharmacokinetics: implications for oral and intravenous use (2004) FETCHED
    • NIHODS2025-VitC Vitamin C - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025) FETCHED

    T2S-03-03

    The only use listed on the FDA label for intravenous ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is short-term treatment of scurvy in patients who cannot take it by mouth.

    The only FDA-labelled indication for intravenous ascorbic acid is short-term treatment of scurvy in patients who cannot take it by mouth. [FDA-Ascor-2017]

    Sources 1
    • FDA-Ascor-2017 ASCOR (ascorbic acid injection) prescribing information, NDA 209112 (2017) FETCHED

    T1S-04-07

    Taking vitamin C by mouth regularly does not reduce how often people in the general population catch colds (relative risk 0.97; 95% confidence interval 0.94–1.00), and it shortens colds by about 8% in adults.

    Regular oral vitamin C does not reduce the incidence of colds in the general population (RR 0.97, 95% CI 0.94–1.00) and shortens them by about 8% in adults. [Hemila2013]

    Sources 1
    • Hemila2013 Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold (2013) FETCHED

    T1S-04-08

    In adults with sepsis who needed drugs to support blood pressure, high-dose IV vitamin C increased the risk of death or persistent organ dysfunction at 28 days (relative risk 1.21; 95% confidence interval 1.04–1.40).

    In adults with sepsis requiring vasopressors, high-dose IV vitamin C increased the risk of death or persistent organ dysfunction at 28 days (RR 1.21, 95% CI 1.04–1.40). [Lamontagne2022-LOVIT]

    Sources 1
    • Lamontagne2022-LOVIT Intravenous Vitamin C in Adults with Sepsis in the Intensive Care Unit (2022) FETCHED

    T5S-04-10

    The US National Cancer Institute states that FDA has not approved high-dose vitamin C as a cancer treatment and that the existing studies lack rigor.

    The US National Cancer Institute states that FDA has not approved high-dose vitamin C as a cancer treatment and that existing studies lack rigor. [NCI-PDQ-VitC-2025]

    Sources 1
    • NCI-PDQ-VitC-2025 Intravenous Vitamin C (PDQ) - Health Professional Version (2025) FETCHED

    T2S-04-11

    In a randomized phase II trial in prostate cancer, adding high-dose IV vitamin C to the drug docetaxel did not improve PSA response (41% vs 33%, P = 0.44), and the trial was stopped for futility.

    In a randomized phase II trial, adding high-dose IV vitamin C to docetaxel did not improve PSA response in prostate cancer (41% vs 33%, P = 0.44) and the trial was stopped for futility. [Paller2024]

    Sources 1
    • Paller2024 High-Dose Intravenous Vitamin C Combined with Docetaxel in Men with Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Phase II Trial (2024) FETCHED
    Oral vs IV rehydration E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T1S-02-13

    For children with gastroenteritis, rehydration by mouth and by vein showed no clinically important difference; about 1 in 25 given fluids by mouth needed IV rescue, while IV lines caused more vein inflammation (phlebitis).

    For children with gastroenteritis, oral and intravenous rehydration showed no clinically important difference; about 1 in 25 given oral fluids needed IV rescue, while IV lines caused more phlebitis. [Hartling2006]

    Sources 1
    • Hartling2006 Oral versus intravenous rehydration for treating dehydration due to gastroenteritis in children (2006) FETCHED

    T5S-02-14

    IV rehydration is called for when fluid losses are severe, when the circulation is impaired, or when replacing fluid by mouth is impractical; mild to moderate dehydration in a conscious person who is not vomiting is managed with fluids by mouth.

    IV rehydration is indicated when deficits are severe, when there is circulatory compromise, or when oral replacement is impractical; mild to moderate dehydration in a conscious, non-vomiting person is treated by mouth. [Lewis2026-VolumeDepletion; Cellucci2025-DehydrationChildren]

    Sources 2
    Parenteral nutrition / trace elements E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T2S-03-16

    Zinc sulfate and selenious acid injections are labeled as sources of zinc (3 milligrams a day) and selenium (60 micrograms a day) for IV feeding when feeding by mouth or by tube is not possible.

    Zinc sulfate and selenious acid injections are labelled as sources of zinc (3 mg/day) and selenium (60 µg/day) for parenteral nutrition when oral or enteral nutrition is not possible. [DailyMed-ZincSulfate; DailyMed-SeleniousAcid-2021]

    Sources 2

    T2S-03-19

    ESPEN recommends (Grade A) that vitamins and minerals be given by mouth or by feeding tube whenever this can be done safely and effectively.

    ESPEN recommends (Grade A) that micronutrients be provided orally or enterally whenever this can be done safely and effectively. [Berger2022-ESPEN]

    Sources 1
  8. Skin, collagen and vessel walls3 substances
    Vitamin C (collagen cofactor) E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T5S-03-04

    Vitamin C is a cofactor for the enzymes that stabilize collagen, and for enzymes that make carnitine and catecholamines.

    Vitamin C is a cofactor for the hydroxylase enzymes that stabilise collagen, and for enzymes in carnitine and catecholamine synthesis. [Carr2017; ODS-VitC-2025]

    Sources 2
    • Carr2017 Vitamin C and Immune Function (2017) FETCHED
    • ODS-VitC-2025 Vitamin C - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2025) FETCHED

    T2S-03-03

    The only use listed on the FDA label for intravenous ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is short-term treatment of scurvy in patients who cannot take it by mouth.

    The only FDA-labelled indication for intravenous ascorbic acid is short-term treatment of scurvy in patients who cannot take it by mouth. [FDA-Ascor-2017]

    Sources 1
    • FDA-Ascor-2017 ASCOR (ascorbic acid injection) prescribing information, NDA 209112 (2017) FETCHED
    Glutathione (skin lightening) W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

    Claims about glutathione drips for skin lightening: NOT SUPPORTED Evidence matrix row row 6

    T1S-04-12

    Systematic reviews found no adequate trial supporting IV glutathione for skin lightening; the one small IV trial did not show a significant effect, and its effect faded within six months.

    Systematic reviews found no adequate trial supporting intravenous glutathione for skin lightening; the one small IV trial was not significant and its effect faded within six months. [Sonthalia2016; Sitohang2020]

    Sources 2
    • Sonthalia2016 Glutathione as a skin whitening agent: Facts, myths, evidence and controversies (2016) FETCHED
    • Sitohang2020 Systemic Glutathione as a Skin-Whitening Agent in Adult (2020) FETCHED

    T5S-05-16

    Compounded IV glutathione made from a dietary-supplement-grade ingredient caused endotoxin reactions in eight patients, and there are no clinical trials of IV glutathione for skin lightening.

    Compounded IV glutathione made from a dietary-supplement-grade ingredient caused endotoxin reactions in eight patients, and there are no clinical trials of IV glutathione for skin lightening. [FDA2019-Glutathione; Sonthalia2016]

    Sources 2
    • FDA2019-Glutathione FDA highlights concerns with using dietary ingredient glutathione to compound sterile injectables (2019) FETCHED
    • Sonthalia2016 Glutathione as a skin whitening agent: Facts, myths, evidence and controversies (2016) FETCHED
    Vein wall (the entry point) E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T1S-05-01

    About one in three peripheral IV catheters fails before treatment is finished, most often from blockage, fluid leaking into the tissue, vein inflammation or the catheter coming out, rather than from infection.

    About one in three peripheral IV catheters fails before treatment is finished, most often from occlusion, infiltration, phlebitis or dislodgement rather than infection. [Marsh2024; Marsh2018]

    Sources 2
    • Marsh2024 Peripheral intravenous catheter infection and failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) FETCHED
    • Marsh2018 Observational Study of Peripheral Intravenous Catheter Outcomes in Adult Hospitalized Patients: A Multivariable Analysis of Peripheral Intravenous Catheter Failure (2018) FETCHED

    T1S-05-02

    Bloodstream infection from a peripheral IV catheter is rare for any one catheter (about 0.03–0.2%), but because billions of catheters are placed each year, the total number is not small.

    Bloodstream infection from a peripheral IV catheter is rare per catheter (about 0.03–0.2%), but because billions of catheters are placed each year the absolute number is not small. [Marsh2024; Mermel2017]

    Sources 2
    • Marsh2024 Peripheral intravenous catheter infection and failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) FETCHED
    • Mermel2017 Short-term Peripheral Venous Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections: A Systematic Review (2017) FETCHED

    T3S-05-04

    Catheters placed in the forearm last better than those in the hand or the inside of the elbow, where blockage and accidental removal are more likely.

    Catheters placed in the forearm survive better than those in the hand or the crook of the elbow, where occlusion and accidental removal are more likely. [Wallis2014]

    Sources 1
    • Wallis2014 Risk Factors for Peripheral Intravenous Catheter Failure: A Multivariate Analysis of Data from a Randomized Controlled Trial (2014) FETCHED
  9. Muscle and performance2 substances
    IV rehydration in athletes W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

    Claims about IV drips for athletic recovery or performance: NOT SUPPORTED Evidence matrix row rows 1, 8

    T2S-04-01

    In crossover trials, in which dehydrated athletes tried both methods, rehydrating by mouth or by vein made no significant difference to exercise performance, and fluids by mouth kept core body temperature lower.

    In crossover trials of dehydrated athletes, oral and intravenous rehydration produced no significant difference in exercise performance, and oral fluid kept core temperature lower. [Casa2000-MSSE; Castellani1997]

    Sources 2
    • Casa2000-MSSE Intravenous versus oral rehydration during a brief period: responses to subsequent exercise in the heat (2000) FETCHED
    • Castellani1997 Intravenous vs. oral rehydration: effects on subsequent exercise-heat stress (1997) FETCHED

    T5S-04-14

    The World Anti-Doping Agency bans IV infusions of more than 100 milliliters per 12 hours, except during hospital treatment, surgery or clinical diagnostic tests.

    The World Anti-Doping Agency prohibits intravenous infusions of more than 100 mL per 12 hours except during hospital treatment, surgery or clinical diagnostic investigation. [WADA2026]

    Sources 1
    • WADA2026 The Prohibited List 2026 (section M2, Chemical and Physical Manipulation) (2026) FETCHED
    Magnesium (neuromuscular) E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T5S-05-10

    As blood magnesium rises, reflexes disappear and breathing can stop; IV magnesium requires monitoring and injectable calcium on hand, and it is hazardous in people with reduced kidney function.

    As blood magnesium rises, reflexes disappear and breathing can stop; IV magnesium requires monitoring and injectable calcium at hand, and is hazardous in kidney impairment. [MgSO4-Label-US; ODS-Magnesium]

    Sources 2
    • MgSO4-Label-US Magnesium Sulfate Injection, USP - Prescribing Information (Precautions and Overdosage) (2026) FETCHED
    • ODS-Magnesium Magnesium - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2026) FETCHED
  10. Bone marrow and blood cells2 substances
    IV iron E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T1S-03-17

    In patients hospitalized for acute heart failure who had iron deficiency, IV ferric carboxymaltose reduced total heart-failure hospital admissions (relative risk 0.74) but did not reduce deaths from heart and blood-vessel causes.

    In patients hospitalised for acute heart failure with iron deficiency, IV ferric carboxymaltose reduced total heart-failure hospitalisations (RR 0.74) but did not reduce cardiovascular death. [Ponikowski2020-AFFIRM]

    Sources 1
    • Ponikowski2020-AFFIRM Ferric carboxymaltose for iron deficiency at discharge after acute heart failure: a multicentre, double-blind, randomised, controlled trial (2020) FETCHED

    T5S-03-18

    FDA states that all IV iron products carry a risk of anaphylaxis (a severe allergic reaction); for ferumoxytol, FDA identified 79 anaphylaxis cases, 18 of them fatal, over five years.

    FDA states that all intravenous iron products carry a risk of anaphylaxis; for ferumoxytol it identified 79 anaphylaxis cases, 18 of them fatal, over five years. [FDA-Feraheme-2015]

    Sources 1
    • FDA-Feraheme-2015 FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA strengthens warnings and changes prescribing instructions to decrease the risk of serious allergic reactions with anemia drug Feraheme (ferumoxytol) (2015) FETCHED
    B12 / folate E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    Claims about B12 for energy in people who are not deficient: INSUFFICIENT Evidence matrix row row 3b

    T1S-03-07

    Low-quality evidence shows that vitamin B12 by mouth at 1,000–2,000 micrograms a day and B12 injected into muscle have similar effects on blood B12 levels.

    Low-quality evidence shows oral vitamin B12 at 1,000–2,000 µg/day and intramuscular B12 have similar effects on serum B12 levels. [Wang2018]

    Sources 1
    • Wang2018 Oral vitamin B12 versus intramuscular vitamin B12 for vitamin B12 deficiency (2018) FETCHED

    T2S-03-08

    The label for cyanocobalamin injection advises against giving it into a vein, because almost all of an IV dose is lost in the urine.

    The cyanocobalamin injection label advises avoiding the intravenous route because almost all of an IV dose is lost in the urine. [DailyMed-Cyanocobalamin]

    Sources 1

    T1S-04-05

    In adults who are not deficient in B12, taking extra B12 has not been shown to improve energy, thinking or mood.

    In adults without B12 deficiency, B12 supplementation has not been shown to improve energy, cognition or mood. [Markun2021; NIH-ODS-B12-2024]

    Sources 2
    • Markun2021 Effects of Vitamin B12 Supplementation on Cognitive Function, Depressive Symptoms, and Fatigue: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Meta-Regression (2021) FETCHED
    • NIH-ODS-B12-2024 Vitamin B12: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals (2024) FETCHED
  11. Immune system2 substances
    Vitamin C (immune) W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

    Claims about vitamin C drips for immune support in healthy adults: INSUFFICIENT Evidence matrix row row 4a (sepsis: NOT SUPPORTED, harm signal, row 4c)

    T1S-04-07

    Taking vitamin C by mouth regularly does not reduce how often people in the general population catch colds (relative risk 0.97; 95% confidence interval 0.94–1.00), and it shortens colds by about 8% in adults.

    Regular oral vitamin C does not reduce the incidence of colds in the general population (RR 0.97, 95% CI 0.94–1.00) and shortens them by about 8% in adults. [Hemila2013]

    Sources 1
    • Hemila2013 Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold (2013) FETCHED

    T1S-04-08

    In adults with sepsis who needed drugs to support blood pressure, high-dose IV vitamin C increased the risk of death or persistent organ dysfunction at 28 days (relative risk 1.21; 95% confidence interval 1.04–1.40).

    In adults with sepsis requiring vasopressors, high-dose IV vitamin C increased the risk of death or persistent organ dysfunction at 28 days (RR 1.21, 95% CI 1.04–1.40). [Lamontagne2022-LOVIT]

    Sources 1
    • Lamontagne2022-LOVIT Intravenous Vitamin C in Adults with Sepsis in the Intensive Care Unit (2022) FETCHED

    T1S-04-09

    In two coordinated trials of patients hospitalized with COVID-19, IV vitamin C met stopping rules set in advance for lack of benefit and for harm, and the investigators recommended that it stop being used.

    In two harmonized trials of hospitalized COVID-19 patients, IV vitamin C met pre-specified futility and harm triggers and the investigators recommended it be de-adopted. [LOVITCOVID2023]

    Sources 1
    • LOVITCOVID2023 Intravenous Vitamin C for Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19: Two Harmonized Randomized Clinical Trials (2023) FETCHED

    T5S-04-18

    The Merck Manual states that high-dose IV vitamin therapy in healthy people should be discouraged because none of the claimed effects have been confirmed.

    The Merck Manual states that use of high-dose IV vitamin therapy in healthy people should be discouraged because none of the claimed effects have been confirmed. [ShaneMcWhorter2025-Merck]

    Sources 1
    Zinc / selenium E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    Claims about immune-support drips: INSUFFICIENT Evidence matrix row row 4a

    T2S-03-16

    Zinc sulfate and selenious acid injections are labeled as sources of zinc (3 milligrams a day) and selenium (60 micrograms a day) for IV feeding when feeding by mouth or by tube is not possible.

    Zinc sulfate and selenious acid injections are labelled as sources of zinc (3 mg/day) and selenium (60 µg/day) for parenteral nutrition when oral or enteral nutrition is not possible. [DailyMed-ZincSulfate; DailyMed-SeleniousAcid-2021]

    Sources 2

    T2S-03-19

    ESPEN recommends (Grade A) that vitamins and minerals be given by mouth or by feeding tube whenever this can be done safely and effectively.

    ESPEN recommends (Grade A) that micronutrients be provided orally or enterally whenever this can be done safely and effectively. [Berger2022-ESPEN]

    Sources 1
  12. Peripheral nerves1 substance
    B6 / B12 / thiamine E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE

    T2S-03-05

    For Wernicke encephalopathy, the EFNS guideline recommends thiamine 200 milligrams three times a day, preferably into a vein, given before any carbohydrate.

    For Wernicke encephalopathy, the EFNS guideline recommends thiamine 200 mg three times daily, preferably intravenously, given before any carbohydrate. [Galvin2010]

    Sources 1
    • Galvin2010 EFNS guidelines for diagnosis, therapy and prevention of Wernicke encephalopathy (2010) FETCHED

    T1S-03-07

    Low-quality evidence shows that vitamin B12 by mouth at 1,000–2,000 micrograms a day and B12 injected into muscle have similar effects on blood B12 levels.

    Low-quality evidence shows oral vitamin B12 at 1,000–2,000 µg/day and intramuscular B12 have similar effects on serum B12 levels. [Wang2018]

    Sources 1
    • Wang2018 Oral vitamin B12 versus intramuscular vitamin B12 for vitamin B12 deficiency (2018) FETCHED

    T5S-01-17

    Absorbed vitamin C that the body does not use leaves the body in urine; the same is true of riboflavin.

    Absorbed vitamin C that the body does not use is excreted in urine; this is also true of riboflavin. [NIHODS2025-VitC; NIHODS2022-Riboflavin]

    Sources 2

07 Evidence matrix

Elective claims, graded.

Verdict labels are copied verbatim from the evidence review. Filter by verdict; each row links to its statements and sources.

Evidence matrix: claim category, lane, verdict, statements and sources
RowClaim categoryVerdictStatements & sources
1

Claims about IV hydration versus drinking, in healthy adults

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
NOT SUPPORTED superiority INSUFFICIENT resting adults
2 statements

T2S-04-01

In crossover trials, in which dehydrated athletes tried both methods, rehydrating by mouth or by vein made no significant difference to exercise performance, and fluids by mouth kept core body temperature lower.

In crossover trials of dehydrated athletes, oral and intravenous rehydration produced no significant difference in exercise performance, and oral fluid kept core temperature lower. [Casa2000-MSSE; Castellani1997]

Sources 2
  • Casa2000-MSSE Intravenous versus oral rehydration during a brief period: responses to subsequent exercise in the heat (2000) FETCHED
  • Castellani1997 Intravenous vs. oral rehydration: effects on subsequent exercise-heat stress (1997) FETCHED

T5S-04-02

No randomized trial has shown that an elective, by-choice IV 'hydration' infusion benefits a healthy adult who is able to drink.

No randomized trial has shown that an elective IV 'hydration' infusion benefits a healthy adult who is able to drink. [vanRosendal2010; ShaneMcWhorter2025-Merck]

Sources 2
  • vanRosendal2010 Intravenous versus oral rehydration in athletes (2010) FETCHED
  • ShaneMcWhorter2025-Merck Intravenous Vitamin Therapy (Myers' Cocktail) - Merck Manual Consumer Version (2025) FETCHED

Casa2000-MSSE Castellani1997 vanRosendal2010 Sawka2007-ACSM
2

Claims about IV drips for hangover

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
INSUFFICIENT no IV trial
1 statement

T1S-04-03

Systematic reviews of hangover remedies found no convincing evidence for any of them and found no trial of an IV approach.

Systematic reviews of hangover treatments found no convincing evidence for any intervention and identified no intravenous trial. [Pittler2005; Jayawardena2017]

Sources 2
  • Pittler2005 Interventions for preventing or treating alcohol hangover: systematic review of randomised controlled trials (2005) FETCHED
  • Jayawardena2017 Interventions for treatment and/or prevention of alcohol hangover: Systematic review (2017) FETCHED

Pittler2005 Jayawardena2017 Perez2013
3a

Claims about the Myers' cocktail for energy

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
NOT SUPPORTED
1 statement

T2S-04-04

In the only placebo-controlled trial of the Myers' cocktail, the IV vitamins and minerals did not differ significantly from a placebo infusion on any outcome.

In the only placebo-controlled trial of the Myers' cocktail, IV micronutrients did not differ significantly from a placebo infusion on any outcome. [Ali2009]

Sources 1
  • Ali2009 Intravenous Micronutrient Therapy (Myers' Cocktail) for Fibromyalgia: A Placebo-Controlled Pilot Study (2009) FETCHED

Ali2009
3b

Claims about B12 for energy in people who are not deficient

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
INSUFFICIENT
1 statement

T1S-04-05

In adults who are not deficient in B12, taking extra B12 has not been shown to improve energy, thinking or mood.

In adults without B12 deficiency, B12 supplementation has not been shown to improve energy, cognition or mood. [Markun2021; NIH-ODS-B12-2024]

Sources 2
  • Markun2021 Effects of Vitamin B12 Supplementation on Cognitive Function, Depressive Symptoms, and Fatigue: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Meta-Regression (2021) FETCHED
  • NIH-ODS-B12-2024 Vitamin B12: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals (2024) FETCHED

Markun2021 NIH-ODS-B12-2024
3c

Claims about NAD+ drips for energy

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
INSUFFICIENT
1 statement

T4S-04-06

For IV NAD+, the only human data are on how the body handles it; no randomized trial has tested whether it improves any health outcome.

Intravenous NAD+ has human pharmacokinetic data only; no randomized trial has tested whether it improves any clinical outcome. [Grant2019; Godic2026]

Sources 2
  • Grant2019 A Pilot Study Investigating Changes in the Human Plasma and Urine NAD+ Metabolome During a 6 Hour Intravenous Infusion of NAD+ (2019) FETCHED
  • Godic2026 Intravenous longevity therapy: a critical review of evidence, mechanisms, and clinical utility (2026) FETCHED

Grant2019 Godic2026
3d

Claims about IV vitamin C for fatigue

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
INSUFFICIENT single short industry-linked trial

No site-ready statement for this row.

Suh2012
4a

Claims about IV drips for immune support in healthy adults

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
INSUFFICIENT
1 statement

T5S-04-18

The Merck Manual states that high-dose IV vitamin therapy in healthy people should be discouraged because none of the claimed effects have been confirmed.

The Merck Manual states that use of high-dose IV vitamin therapy in healthy people should be discouraged because none of the claimed effects have been confirmed. [ShaneMcWhorter2025-Merck]

Sources 1

ShaneMcWhorter2025-Merck
4b

Claims about oral vitamin C and zinc for colds and respiratory infections

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
MIXED oral, small effects
1 statement

T1S-04-07

Taking vitamin C by mouth regularly does not reduce how often people in the general population catch colds (relative risk 0.97; 95% confidence interval 0.94–1.00), and it shortens colds by about 8% in adults.

Regular oral vitamin C does not reduce the incidence of colds in the general population (RR 0.97, 95% CI 0.94–1.00) and shortens them by about 8% in adults. [Hemila2013]

Sources 1
  • Hemila2013 Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold (2013) FETCHED

Hemila2013 Hunter2021 NIH-ODS-VitC-2025
4c

Claims about high-dose IV vitamin C in sepsis and COVID-19 (hospital trials)

 Verdict:
NOT SUPPORTED EVIDENCE OF HARM
2 statements

T1S-04-08

In adults with sepsis who needed drugs to support blood pressure, high-dose IV vitamin C increased the risk of death or persistent organ dysfunction at 28 days (relative risk 1.21; 95% confidence interval 1.04–1.40).

In adults with sepsis requiring vasopressors, high-dose IV vitamin C increased the risk of death or persistent organ dysfunction at 28 days (RR 1.21, 95% CI 1.04–1.40). [Lamontagne2022-LOVIT]

Sources 1
  • Lamontagne2022-LOVIT Intravenous Vitamin C in Adults with Sepsis in the Intensive Care Unit (2022) FETCHED

T1S-04-09

In two coordinated trials of patients hospitalized with COVID-19, IV vitamin C met stopping rules set in advance for lack of benefit and for harm, and the investigators recommended that it stop being used.

In two harmonized trials of hospitalized COVID-19 patients, IV vitamin C met pre-specified futility and harm triggers and the investigators recommended it be de-adopted. [LOVITCOVID2023]

Sources 1
  • LOVITCOVID2023 Intravenous Vitamin C for Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19: Two Harmonized Randomized Clinical Trials (2023) FETCHED

Fowler2019-CITRIS Sevransky2021-VICTAS Lamontagne2022-LOVIT LOVITCOVID2023
5

Claims about high-dose IV vitamin C for cancer

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
INSUFFICIENT not established
2 statements

T5S-04-10

The US National Cancer Institute states that FDA has not approved high-dose vitamin C as a cancer treatment and that the existing studies lack rigor.

The US National Cancer Institute states that FDA has not approved high-dose vitamin C as a cancer treatment and that existing studies lack rigor. [NCI-PDQ-VitC-2025]

Sources 1
  • NCI-PDQ-VitC-2025 Intravenous Vitamin C (PDQ) - Health Professional Version (2025) FETCHED

T2S-04-11

In a randomized phase II trial in prostate cancer, adding high-dose IV vitamin C to the drug docetaxel did not improve PSA response (41% vs 33%, P = 0.44), and the trial was stopped for futility.

In a randomized phase II trial, adding high-dose IV vitamin C to docetaxel did not improve PSA response in prostate cancer (41% vs 33%, P = 0.44) and the trial was stopped for futility. [Paller2024]

Sources 1
  • Paller2024 High-Dose Intravenous Vitamin C Combined with Docetaxel in Men with Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Phase II Trial (2024) FETCHED

NCI-PDQ-VitC-2025 Paller2024
6

Claims about IV glutathione for skin

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
NOT SUPPORTED safety concerns
1 statement

T1S-04-12

Systematic reviews found no adequate trial supporting IV glutathione for skin lightening; the one small IV trial did not show a significant effect, and its effect faded within six months.

Systematic reviews found no adequate trial supporting intravenous glutathione for skin lightening; the one small IV trial was not significant and its effect faded within six months. [Sonthalia2016; Sitohang2020]

Sources 2
  • Sonthalia2016 Glutathione as a skin whitening agent: Facts, myths, evidence and controversies (2016) FETCHED
  • Sitohang2020 Systemic Glutathione as a Skin-Whitening Agent in Adult (2020) FETCHED

Sonthalia2016 Dilokthornsakul2019 Sitohang2020
7

Claims about IV magnesium for migraine (emergency department use vs elective drips)

E ESTABLISHED CLINICAL USE W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
MIXED ED use INSUFFICIENT elective
1 statement

T1S-04-13

Combined analyses of IV magnesium for migraine attacks in emergency departments disagree, and it is not among the American Headache Society's Level B first-line injectable treatments.

Meta-analyses of IV magnesium for acute migraine in emergency departments disagree, and it is not among the American Headache Society's Level B first-line injectable treatments. [Chiu2016; Choi2014; Orr2016]

Sources 3
  • Chiu2016 Effects of Intravenous and Oral Magnesium on Reducing Migraine: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials (2016) FETCHED
  • Choi2014 The use of intravenous magnesium sulphate for acute migraine: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (2014) FETCHED
  • Orr2016 Management of Adults With Acute Migraine in the Emergency Department: The American Headache Society Evidence Assessment of Parenteral Pharmacotherapies (2016) FETCHED

Chiu2016 Choi2014 Orr2016
8

Claims about IV drips for athletic recovery or performance

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
NOT SUPPORTED prohibited
1 statement

T5S-04-14

The World Anti-Doping Agency bans IV infusions of more than 100 milliliters per 12 hours, except during hospital treatment, surgery or clinical diagnostic tests.

The World Anti-Doping Agency prohibits intravenous infusions of more than 100 mL per 12 hours except during hospital treatment, surgery or clinical diagnostic investigation. [WADA2026]

Sources 1
  • WADA2026 The Prohibited List 2026 (section M2, Chemical and Physical Manipulation) (2026) FETCHED

WADA2026 USADA2014 Pomroy2019-AIS
9

Claims about chelation or detox drips

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
NOT SUPPORTED
1 statement

T1S-04-15

The large TACT2 trial found no heart or blood-vessel benefit from 40 EDTA chelation infusions in patients with diabetes and a past heart attack, even though their blood lead fell by 61%.

The large TACT2 trial found no cardiovascular benefit from 40 EDTA chelation infusions in patients with diabetes and prior heart attack, despite a 61% fall in blood lead. [Lamas2024-TACT2]

Sources 1
  • Lamas2024-TACT2 Edetate disodium-based chelation for patients with a previous myocardial infarction and diabetes: TACT2 randomized clinical trial (as summarised by NCCIH) (2024) FETCHED

Klein2015 Lamas2013-TACT Lamas2024-TACT2
10

Claims about IV drips for weight loss, cognition or jet lag

W ELECTIVE / WELLNESS USE

 Verdict:
INSUFFICIENT

No site-ready statement for this row.

Sivakumar2025
P

Claims about placebo response by route of administration

 Verdict:
SUPPORTED route amplifies placebo
1 statement

T1S-04-17

Injected and procedure-based placebos produce larger placebo responses than placebos taken by mouth, which is one reason individual testimonials about IV infusions cannot show that the infusions work.

Injected and procedural placebos produce larger placebo responses than oral placebos, which is one reason individual testimonials about IV infusions cannot establish efficacy. [deCraen2000; Bannuru2015; Kaptchuk2006]

Sources 3
  • deCraen2000 Placebo effect in the acute treatment of migraine: subcutaneous placebos are better than oral placebos (2000) FETCHED
  • Bannuru2015 Effectiveness and Implications of Alternative Placebo Treatments: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis of Osteoarthritis Trials (2015) FETCHED
  • Kaptchuk2006 Sham device v inert pill: randomised controlled trial of two placebo treatments (2006) FETCHED

deCraen2000 Kaptchuk2006 Bannuru2015

Context

T3S-04-16

A 2025 survey of 255 US IV-spa websites found that every site made health-benefit claims, fewer than 1% cited a source, and the median price was $179 per treatment.

In a 2025 survey of 255 US IV-spa websites, every site made health-benefit claims and fewer than 1% cited a source; the median price was $179 per treatment. [Sivakumar2025]

Sources 1
  • Sivakumar2025 State Policies and Facility Practices of Intravenous Hydration Spas in the US (2025) FETCHED

08 Safety

What can go wrong, and how it is reported.

Peripheral catheter complications

T1S-05-01

About one in three peripheral IV catheters fails before treatment is finished, most often from blockage, fluid leaking into the tissue, vein inflammation or the catheter coming out, rather than from infection.

About one in three peripheral IV catheters fails before treatment is finished, most often from occlusion, infiltration, phlebitis or dislodgement rather than infection. [Marsh2024; Marsh2018]

Sources 2
  • Marsh2024 Peripheral intravenous catheter infection and failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) FETCHED
  • Marsh2018 Observational Study of Peripheral Intravenous Catheter Outcomes in Adult Hospitalized Patients: A Multivariable Analysis of Peripheral Intravenous Catheter Failure (2018) FETCHED

T1S-05-02

Bloodstream infection from a peripheral IV catheter is rare for any one catheter (about 0.03–0.2%), but because billions of catheters are placed each year, the total number is not small.

Bloodstream infection from a peripheral IV catheter is rare per catheter (about 0.03–0.2%), but because billions of catheters are placed each year the absolute number is not small. [Marsh2024; Mermel2017]

Sources 2
  • Marsh2024 Peripheral intravenous catheter infection and failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) FETCHED
  • Mermel2017 Short-term Peripheral Venous Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections: A Systematic Review (2017) FETCHED

T1S-05-03

Replacing a peripheral catheter only when there was a clinical reason led to the same rate of vein inflammation (7%) as routinely replacing it every 72–96 hours.

Replacing a peripheral catheter only when there is a clinical reason produced the same phlebitis rate (7%) as routine replacement every 72–96 hours. [Rickard2012; OGrady2011]

Sources 2
  • Rickard2012 Routine versus clinically indicated replacement of peripheral intravenous catheters: a randomised controlled equivalence trial (2012) FETCHED
  • OGrady2011 Guidelines for the Prevention of Intravascular Catheter-Related Infections, 2011 (2011) FETCHED

T3S-05-04

Catheters placed in the forearm last better than those in the hand or the inside of the elbow, where blockage and accidental removal are more likely.

Catheters placed in the forearm survive better than those in the hand or the crook of the elbow, where occlusion and accidental removal are more likely. [Wallis2014]

Sources 1
  • Wallis2014 Risk Factors for Peripheral Intravenous Catheter Failure: A Multivariate Analysis of Data from a Randomized Controlled Trial (2014) FETCHED

Compounding and contamination

T5S-05-05

Mixing vitamins or electrolytes into an IV bag is sterile compounding, and compounded IV products have caused bloodstream-infection outbreaks across several states.

Mixing vitamins or electrolytes into an IV bag is sterile compounding, and compounded IV products have caused multistate bloodstream-infection outbreaks. [CABoP2024; USP797; Sunenshine2007; CDC2015-NECC]

Sources 4
  • CABoP2024 Policy Statement Related to Risks to Patients Receiving Intravenous Hydration in Unlicensed Clinics or Locations (2024) FETCHED
  • USP797 USP General Chapter <797> Pharmaceutical Compounding - Sterile Preparations (overview page) (2008) FETCHED
  • Sunenshine2007 A multistate outbreak of Serratia marcescens bloodstream infection associated with contaminated intravenous magnesium sulfate from a compounding pharmacy (2007) FETCHED
  • CDC2015-NECC Multistate Outbreak of Fungal Meningitis and Other Infections - Case Count (2015) FETCHED

T5S-05-06

FDA has documented septic shock after an at-home IV vitamin infusion prepared by a clinic that did not have a certified sterile compounding area.

FDA has documented septic shock after a home IV vitamin infusion compounded by a clinic without a certified sterile compounding area. [FDA2021-Insanitary]

Sources 1
  • FDA2021-Insanitary FDA highlights concerns with compounding of drug products by medical offices and clinics under insanitary conditions (2021) FETCHED

T5S-05-16

Compounded IV glutathione made from a dietary-supplement-grade ingredient caused endotoxin reactions in eight patients, and there are no clinical trials of IV glutathione for skin lightening.

Compounded IV glutathione made from a dietary-supplement-grade ingredient caused endotoxin reactions in eight patients, and there are no clinical trials of IV glutathione for skin lightening. [FDA2019-Glutathione; Sonthalia2016]

Sources 2
  • FDA2019-Glutathione FDA highlights concerns with using dietary ingredient glutathione to compound sterile injectables (2019) FETCHED
  • Sonthalia2016 Glutathione as a skin whitening agent: Facts, myths, evidence and controversies (2016) FETCHED

T3S-05-07

A 2025 national study found that no state had passed a law specifically regulating IV hydration spas, and no spa website it reviewed listed an emergency procedure.

A 2025 national study found no state had enacted legislation specifically regulating IV hydration spas and no reviewed spa website listed an emergency protocol. [Sivakumar2025]

Sources 1
  • Sivakumar2025 State Policies and Facility Practices of Intravenous Hydration Spas in the US (2025) FETCHED

Systemic and substance-specific risks

T5S-05-08

Giving fluid faster or in larger amounts than the heart and kidneys can handle causes fluid buildup in the lungs (pulmonary edema); people with heart failure or kidney disease are most at risk.

Giving fluid faster or in greater volume than the heart and kidneys can handle causes pulmonary oedema; people with heart failure or kidney disease are most at risk. [NICE-CG174; ClaureDelGranado2016]

Sources 2
  • NICE-CG174 Intravenous fluid therapy in adults in hospital (Clinical guideline CG174) (2013) FETCHED
  • ClaureDelGranado2016 Fluid overload in the ICU: evaluation and management (2016) FETCHED

T5S-05-09

IV potassium is a high-alert medicine: it must be diluted, and when the need is not urgent it should not be given faster than 10 mEq per hour.

Intravenous potassium is a high-alert medicine: it must be diluted, and non-urgent infusion should not exceed 10 mEq per hour. [KCl-Label; ISMP2024]

Sources 2
  • KCl-Label Potassium Chloride for Injection Concentrate, USP - Prescribing Information (Dosage and Administration) (2026) FETCHED
  • ISMP2024 High-Alert Medications in Acute Care Settings (ISMP list, 2024, as hosted by ECRI) (2024) FETCHED

T5S-05-10

As blood magnesium rises, reflexes disappear and breathing can stop; IV magnesium requires monitoring and injectable calcium on hand, and it is hazardous in people with reduced kidney function.

As blood magnesium rises, reflexes disappear and breathing can stop; IV magnesium requires monitoring and injectable calcium at hand, and is hazardous in kidney impairment. [MgSO4-Label-US; ODS-Magnesium]

Sources 2
  • MgSO4-Label-US Magnesium Sulfate Injection, USP - Prescribing Information (Precautions and Overdosage) (2026) FETCHED
  • ODS-Magnesium Magnesium - Health Professional Fact Sheet (2026) FETCHED

T5S-05-11

The FDA label for IV vitamin C warns of kidney injury from oxalate, breakdown of red blood cells (hemolysis) in people with G6PD deficiency, and false glucose-meter readings for up to 24 hours.

The FDA label for IV vitamin C warns of oxalate kidney injury, haemolysis in G6PD deficiency and false glucose-meter readings for up to 24 hours. [Ascor-Label]

Sources 1
  • Ascor-Label ASCOR (ascorbic acid injection) for intravenous use - Prescribing Information (NDA 209112) (2017) FETCHED

T3S-05-12

High-dose IV vitamin C has caused massive breakdown of red blood cells and kidney failure needing dialysis in a patient with G6PD deficiency, and dangerously false high glucose readings that led to an insulin-induced coma in a dialysis patient.

High-dose IV vitamin C has caused massive haemolysis and dialysis-requiring kidney failure in a patient with G6PD deficiency, and dangerously false high glucose readings leading to insulin-induced coma in a dialysis patient. [Rees2018; Lachance2021]

Sources 2
  • Rees2018 Massive oxidative haemolysis and renal failure caused by high dose vitamin C (2018) FETCHED
  • Lachance2021 High-dose vitamin-C induced prolonged factitious hyperglycemia in a peritoneal dialysis patient: a case report (2021) FETCHED

T3S-05-13

In a study that tracked doses as they were given, IV thiamine caused a reaction of any kind in 1.1% of 1,070 doses and a major reaction in 0.09%.

In a prospective series, IV thiamine caused any reaction in 1.1% of 1,070 doses and a major reaction in 0.09%. [Wrenn1989]

Sources 1
  • Wrenn1989 A toxicity study of parenteral thiamine hydrochloride (1989) FETCHED

T5S-05-14

Injectable vitamin B12 is labeled for injection into muscle or under the skin; the label says to avoid giving it into a vein because almost all of the dose is lost in urine.

Injectable vitamin B12 is labelled for intramuscular or subcutaneous use; the label says to avoid the IV route because almost all of the dose is lost in urine. [Cyanocobalamin-Label]

Sources 1
  • Cyanocobalamin-Label Cyanocobalamin Injection, USP 1,000 mcg/mL - Prescribing Information (Gland Pharma) (2026) FETCHED

T5S-05-15

IV iron can cause anaphylaxis (a severe allergic reaction); ferumoxytol carries a boxed warning requiring a 15-minute infusion, 30 minutes of observation and immediate access to resuscitation.

IV iron can cause anaphylaxis; ferumoxytol carries a boxed warning requiring a 15-minute infusion, 30 minutes of observation and immediate access to resuscitation. [Feraheme-Label; Wang2015]

Sources 2
  • Feraheme-Label FERAHEME (ferumoxytol injection) - Prescribing Information (2026) FETCHED
  • Wang2015 Comparative Risk of Anaphylactic Reactions Associated With Intravenous Iron Products (2015) FETCHED

T4S-05-17

The one controlled human study of a 6-hour, 750-milligram NAD+ infusion reported no adverse events in 8 volunteers; it was small and partly funded by industry.

The one controlled human study of a 6-hour, 750 mg NAD+ infusion reported no adverse events in 8 volunteers; it was small and industry co-funded. [Grant2019]

Sources 1
  • Grant2019 A Pilot Study Investigating Changes in the Human Plasma and Urine NAD+ Metabolome During a 6 Hour Intravenous Infusion of NAD+ (2019) FETCHED

Standards, consent and reporting

T2S-05-18

Anywhere infusions are given, adrenaline (epinephrine) at 1 mg/mL and resuscitation equipment should be available; the adult dose for anaphylaxis is 500 micrograms injected into a muscle, repeated after 5 minutes if needed.

Anywhere infusions are given, adrenaline 1 mg/mL and resuscitation equipment should be available; the adult anaphylaxis dose is 500 micrograms intramuscularly, repeated after 5 minutes if needed. [RCUK2021]

Sources 1
  • RCUK2021 Emergency treatment of anaphylaxis: Guidelines for healthcare providers (2021) FETCHED

T5S-05-20

Informed consent means being told the purpose, risks, burdens and expected benefits of the infusion, and of not having it.

Informed consent means being told the purpose, risks, burdens and expected benefits of the infusion and of not having it. [AMA-InformedConsent]

Sources 1

T5S-05-19

Patients and clinicians can report suspected harm from any IV product, including compounded infusions, to FDA's MedWatch program.

Patients and clinicians can report suspected harm from any IV product, including compounded infusions, to FDA MedWatch. [FDA-MedWatch; FDA2021-Insanitary]

Sources 2
  • FDA-MedWatch MedWatch: The FDA Safety Information and Adverse Event Reporting Program (2026) FETCHED
  • FDA2021-Insanitary FDA highlights concerns with compounding of drug products by medical offices and clinics under insanitary conditions (2021) FETCHED

FDA MedWatch — report a problem ↗ FDA-MedWatch

10 Sources & method

How every sentence here was graded.

Every scientific sentence on this site is a numbered statement (S-NN-xx) from a research corpus compiled for this site. Each carries an evidence tier and the citation keys behind it; switching between Plain and Technical changes wording only, never which statements are shown.

T1
Systematic review / meta-analysis of RCTs, or large multicenter RCT
T2
Single RCT (small or single-center) or formal guideline recommendation
T3
Observational / cohort / case series / case reports
T4
Mechanistic / in-vitro / animal / human pharmacokinetic study
T5
Expert opinion / narrative review / regulatory statement (authoritative for law, not for efficacy)

Citation records are marked FETCHED when the page was opened and read, or SEARCH_ONLY when only search results were seen. This list holds 296 records (289 fetched) that collapse to 279 distinct sources; aliases of one source are listed together.

A second AI model independently cross-checked trial numbers and verdicts; that cross-check was not file-verified and is recorded as a confirming opinion only. Clinical review of this content is pending.

Last reviewed 2026-10-31

Regulation & claims

T5S-06-01

Under US law, a dietary supplement must be meant to be taken by mouth, so vitamins or nutrients given into a vein are regulated as drugs, not as supplements.

Under US law a dietary supplement must be intended for ingestion, so vitamins or nutrients given intravenously are regulated as drugs, not supplements. [USC-21-321ff; FDA-SupplementQA-2026]

Sources 2
  • USC-21-321ff 21 U.S.C. § 321 Definitions; generally — subsection (ff) 'dietary supplement' (2026) FETCHED
  • FDA-SupplementQA-2026 Questions and Answers on Dietary Supplements (2026) FETCHED

T5S-06-02

FDA states that compounded drugs are not approved by FDA and that the agency does not check their safety, effectiveness or quality before they are sold.

FDA states that compounded drugs are not FDA-approved and that it does not verify their safety, effectiveness or quality before they are marketed. [FDA-CompoundingQA-2025]

Sources 1

T5S-06-03

According to state pharmacy and medical boards, mixing vitamins or other additives into an IV bag is sterile compounding.

Mixing vitamins or other additives into an IV bag is sterile compounding, according to state pharmacy and medical boards. [CABOP-2024; VTOPR-2024; SC-JointOpinion-2023]

Sources 3
  • CABOP-2024 Policy Statement Related to Risks to Patients Receiving Intravenous Hydration in Unlicensed Clinics or Locations (2024) FETCHED
  • VTOPR-2024 Joint Statement Regarding IV Therapy Clinics and Medical Spas (2024) FETCHED
  • SC-JointOpinion-2023 Joint Advisory Opinion of the South Carolina State Boards of Medical Examiners, Pharmacy, and Nursing Regarding Retail IV Therapy Businesses (2023) FETCHED

T5S-06-04

Under section 503A, compounding requires a valid prescription for a specific patient and is exempt from manufacturing standards (CGMP); section 503B outsourcing facilities must follow CGMP and may supply stock to keep on hand in an office.

Section 503A compounding requires a valid patient-specific prescription and is exempt from manufacturing (CGMP) standards; section 503B outsourcing facilities must follow CGMP and may supply office stock. [FDA-CompoundingLaws-2024; FDA-FDCProvisions-2021]

Sources 2

T5S-06-05

On FDA's current 503A list of nominated bulk ingredients, glutathione and NAD are Category 1 (FDA may hold back enforcement, under conditions), while zinc and selenium are Category 3 (not covered by that policy); Category 1 is not approval.

On FDA's current 503A nominated-bulks list, glutathione and NAD are Category 1 (enforcement discretion under conditions), while zinc and selenium are Category 3 (not covered by that policy); Category 1 is not approval. [FDA-503A-BulksList-2026; FDA-503A-BulksPage-2026]

Sources 2
  • FDA-503A-BulksList-2026 Bulk Drug Substances Nominated for Use in Compounding Under Section 503A of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (Category 1, 2, 3 lists) (2026) FETCHED
  • FDA-503A-BulksPage-2026 Bulk Drug Substances Used in Compounding Under Section 503A of the FD&C Act (2026) FETCHED

T5S-06-06

In 2021, FDA warned that IV hydration clinics, medical spas and mobile IV services may be compounding drugs that do not meet federal conditions or state rules, and it documented a case of septic shock after an at-home IV vitamin infusion.

In 2021 FDA warned that IV hydration clinics, medical spas and mobile IV services may be compounding drugs that do not meet federal conditions or state rules, and documented a case of septic shock after a home IV vitamin infusion. [FDA-InsanitaryClinics-2021]

Sources 1
  • FDA-InsanitaryClinics-2021 FDA highlights concerns with compounding of drug products by medical offices and clinics under insanitary conditions (2021) FETCHED

T5S-06-07

In 2018–2019 the FTC barred an IV-therapy marketer from claiming its drips treat cancer, heart failure, multiple sclerosis or other diseases unless backed by randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled human trials.

In 2018–2019 the FTC barred an IV-therapy marketer from claiming its drips treat cancer, heart failure, multiple sclerosis or other diseases unless supported by randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled human trials. [FTC-iVBars-PR-2018; FTC-iVBars-Order-2019]

Sources 2
  • FTC-iVBars-PR-2018 FTC Brings First-ever Action Targeting 'iV Cocktail' Therapy Marketer (2018) FETCHED
  • FTC-iVBars-Order-2019 Decision and Order, In the Matter of A & O Enterprises Inc. and Aaron K. Roberts (Docket No. C-4670) (2019) FETCHED

T5S-06-08

FTC guidance says health-benefit claims generally need randomized controlled testing in people, that a clinician's anecdotes are not evidence of cause and effect, and that disclaimers do not fix a misleading claim.

FTC guidance says health-benefit claims generally need randomized controlled human testing, that a clinician's anecdotal experience is not evidence of causation, and that disclaimers do not cure a misleading claim. [FTC-HPCG-2022]

Sources 1

T5S-06-09

The FTC regards educational articles or studies used to promote a product as advertising, and the UK Advertising Standards Authority rejected an 'educational blog post' defense for an IV-drip COVID-19 claim.

Educational articles or studies used to promote a product are treated as advertising by the FTC, and the UK ASA rejected an 'educational blog post' defence for an IV-drip COVID-19 claim. [FTC-HPCG-2022; ASA-REVIV-COVID-2020]

Sources 2

T5S-06-10

In 2020 the FTC ordered IV clinics to stop claiming that high-dose IV vitamin C prevents or treats COVID-19.

In 2020 the FTC ordered IV clinics to stop claiming that high-dose intravenous vitamin C prevents or treats COVID-19. [FTC-WL-OnusIV-2020; FTC-WL-REVIV-2020; FTC-WL-AgeManagement-2020]

Sources 3

T5S-06-11

State medical and nursing boards state that IV hydration is the practice of medicine: a physician, PA or APRN must personally evaluate the patient and issue an individual order, and choosing a drip from a menu is not a prescription.

State medical and nursing boards state that IV hydration is the practice of medicine, that a physician, PA or APRN must personally evaluate the patient and issue an individualized order, and that choosing a drip from a menu is not a prescription. [ALBME-2022; MSBML-2023; OSBN-2024; VTOPR-2024]

Sources 4
  • ALBME-2022 Declaratory Ruling of the Alabama State Board of Medical Examiners (IV therapy businesses) (2022) FETCHED
  • MSBML-2023 Guidance Regarding IV Hydration Therapy (2023) FETCHED
  • OSBN-2024 Nursing Practice: Intravenous Hydration Therapy (Interpretive Statement) (2024) FETCHED
  • VTOPR-2024 Joint Statement Regarding IV Therapy Clinics and Medical Spas (2024) FETCHED

T5S-06-12

Several state boards state that standing orders cannot substitute for an individual order and cannot authorize a nurse to make independent medical judgments.

Several state boards state that standing orders cannot substitute for an individualized order and cannot authorize a nurse to exercise independent medical judgment. [MSBN-2025; NDBON-2024; OKBN-2026; SC-JointOpinion-2023]

Sources 4
  • MSBN-2025 IV Hydration Position Statement (2025) FETCHED
  • NDBON-2024 Role of the Licensed Nurse in Retail Intravenous Therapy Settings (practice guidance) (2024) FETCHED
  • OKBN-2026 IV Hydration Guidelines (OBN Policy/Guideline #P-24) (2026) FETCHED
  • SC-JointOpinion-2023 Joint Advisory Opinion of the South Carolina State Boards of Medical Examiners, Pharmacy, and Nursing Regarding Retail IV Therapy Businesses (2023) FETCHED

T3S-06-13

A 2025 study found that only 2 of 255 US IV-spa websites cited sources for their health claims, and about a quarter of facilities contacted required a consultation with a licensed professional (27.6%) or described risks (24.4%).

A 2025 study found that only 2 of 255 US IV-spa websites cited sources for their health claims, and about a quarter of facilities contacted required consultation with a licensed professional (27.6%) or described risks (24.4%). [Sivakumar2025]

Sources 1
  • Sivakumar2025 State Policies and Facility Practices of Intravenous Hydration Spas in the US (2025) FETCHED

T5S-06-14

A Texas law in effect from September 1, 2025, regulates elective IV therapy outside physician offices and hospitals, and lets physicians delegate ordering to PAs or APRNs and giving the therapy to PAs, APRNs or RNs under supervision.

Texas law effective 1 September 2025 regulates elective IV therapy outside physician offices and hospitals and allows physicians to delegate ordering to PAs or APRNs and administration to PAs, APRNs or RNs under supervision. [TX-HB3749-2025]

Sources 1
  • TX-HB3749-2025 H.B. No. 3749 (89R) — relating to the regulation of the provision of elective intravenous therapy ('Jenifer's Law'), enrolled text (2025) FETCHED

T5S-06-15

The UK Advertising Standards Authority upheld complaints against three IV-drip companies over unsupported claims about immunity, energy, 'detox', anti-aging, skin and hair, finding evidence from deficient or ill patients irrelevant to healthy consumers.

The UK Advertising Standards Authority upheld complaints against three IV-drip companies for unsubstantiated immunity, energy, detox, anti-ageing, skin and hair claims, finding evidence from deficient or ill patients irrelevant to healthy consumers. [ASA-GetADrip-2023; ASA-REVIV-2023; ASA-GMG-2023]

Sources 3
  • ASA-GetADrip-2023 ASA Ruling on Get A Drip Ltd (A19-549582) (2023) FETCHED
  • ASA-REVIV-2023 ASA Ruling on REVIV UK Ltd t/a REVIV (A19-562605) (2023) FETCHED
  • ASA-GMG-2023 ASA Ruling on GMG Pharmacy Ltd t/a The IV Clinic (A19-549495) (2023) FETCHED

T5S-06-16

The UK Care Quality Commission regards giving vitamins and prescription-only medicines into a vein for wellbeing as a regulated activity, not as complementary medicine.

The UK Care Quality Commission treats intravenous administration of vitamins and prescription-only medicines for wellbeing as a regulated activity, not as complementary medicine. [CQC-TDDI-2025]

Sources 1
  • CQC-TDDI-2025 Scope of registration: Treatment of disease, disorder or injury (regulated activity) (2025) FETCHED

T5S-06-17

In 2022, Australia's health-practitioner regulator warned that IV infusion advertising that uses testimonials or general 'wellness' claims without a diagnosed clinical need may break the National Law.

Australia's health-practitioner regulator warned in 2022 that IV infusion advertising using testimonials or general 'wellness' claims without a diagnosed clinical need may breach the National Law. [Ahpra-2022]

Sources 1
  • Ahpra-2022 Regulator issues warnings over unproven IV treatments (2022) FETCHED

T5S-06-18

Six US infusion, pharmacy and nutrition organizations and the American College of Clinical Pharmacology have called for licensing, written disclosure of the lack of evidence, informed consent and reporting of harmful events for direct-access IV businesses.

Six US infusion, pharmacy and nutrition organizations and the American College of Clinical Pharmacology have called for licensure, written disclosure of the lack of evidence, informed consent and adverse-event reporting for direct-access IV businesses. [NHIA-Joint-2022; Bonate2024]

Sources 2
  • NHIA-Joint-2022 Statement on the Need for State and FDA Review of Direct Access Intravenous Therapy Businesses (2022) FETCHED
  • Bonate2024 ACCP Position Statement on Hydration and Vitamin Infusion Clinics (2024) FETCHED

T5S-06-19

FTC rules require testimonials to reflect typical results or disclose the results people can generally expect, require paid or rewarded endorsements to be disclosed, and ban fake or AI-generated reviews.

FTC rules require testimonials to reflect typical results or disclose generally expected performance, require disclosure of paid or incentivized endorsements, and prohibit fake or AI-generated reviews. [FTC-EndorsementGuides-2023; FTC-FakeReviewsRule-2024]

Sources 2
  • FTC-EndorsementGuides-2023 16 CFR Part 255 — Guides Concerning Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising (2023) FETCHED
  • FTC-FakeReviewsRule-2024 Federal Trade Commission Announces Final Rule Banning Fake Reviews and Testimonials (2024) FETCHED

T5S-06-20

Websites of businesses open to the public are covered by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), and the Department of Justice points to WCAG as helpful guidance on accessibility.

Websites of businesses open to the public are subject to the ADA, and the Department of Justice points to WCAG as helpful guidance on accessibility. [DOJ-WebGuidance-2022]

Sources 1

Glossary

osmolarity
A calculated concentration of an IV fluid, stated in mOsmol/L on the bag label, that is compared with plasma osmolality to judge whether the fluid is near-isotonic. S-02-01 S-01-18 S-02-04
osmolality
The concentration measure used for plasma, normally roughly 275–295 mOsm/kg and set mainly by sodium; water moves across cell membranes so that osmolality equalizes between body compartments. S-01-08 S-01-09 S-02-15
bioavailability
How much of a dose reaches the systemic circulation; it is 100% by definition for an IV dose, which enters the circulation directly and is the reference against which other routes are measured. S-01-01 S-01-02 S-03-13
first-pass
The passage through the gut wall and liver that a substance absorbed from the gut makes before reaching the systemic circulation; an IV dose enters the circulation directly and skips it. S-01-02
glycocalyx
Definition pending: no registry statement covers this term yet.
cofactor
A substance an enzyme works with that is not itself the catalyst, as vitamin C is for the enzymes that hydroxylate collagen and magnesium is for more than 300 enzyme systems. S-03-22 S-03-04 S-03-09
tier
The evidence label on each statement: T1 = Systematic review / meta-analysis of RCTs, or large multicenter RCT; T2 = Single RCT (small or single-center) or formal guideline recommendation; T3 = Observational / cohort / case series / case reports; T4 = Mechanistic / in-vitro / animal / human pharmacokinetic study; T5 = Expert opinion / narrative review / regulatory statement (regulatory statements are authoritative for LAW, not for efficacy). RULES.md
isotonic
Describes an IV fluid whose concentration is close to plasma osmolality; isotonic crystalloids spread through the whole extracellular space. S-02-04 S-02-02
crystalloid
A type of IV fluid; isotonic crystalloids spread through the whole extracellular space, and at steady state only about 15 to 25% of the infused volume remains in the blood vessels. S-02-02 S-01-11
interstitial fluid
Fluid outside the blood vessels into which capillaries filter; capillaries do not reabsorb it for long, and it returns to the blood as lymph. S-01-10 S-02-03
aquaporin
A channel that increases how easily water crosses a cell membrane, although lipid membranes also pass water on their own. S-01-09
compounding
Mixing vitamins, electrolytes or other additives into an IV bag is sterile compounding, and FDA states that compounded drugs are not approved by FDA and that it does not verify their safety, effectiveness or quality before marketing. S-06-03 S-05-05 S-06-02
half-life
A measure of how long a substance stays in the body, set by its volume of distribution and clearance rather than by the route it was given. S-01-03
refeeding syndrome
A condition defined by a fall in phosphate, potassium and/or magnesium within 5 days of restarting nutrition. S-02-20

Bibliography

  1. AHA2020-ALS FETCHED T2

    2020 American Heart Association Guidelines for CPR and Emergency Cardiovascular Care, Part 3: Adult Basic and Advanced Life Support

    Panchal AR, Bartos JA, Cabanas JG, et al. · Circulation (via cpr.heart.org full text) · 2020 · verified 2026-10-30

  2. Ahpra-2022 FETCHED T5

    Regulator issues warnings over unproven IV treatments

    Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (Ahpra) and National Boards · ahpra.gov.au news · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  3. ALBME-2022 FETCHED T5

    Declaratory Ruling of the Alabama State Board of Medical Examiners (IV therapy businesses)

    Alabama State Board of Medical Examiners (LeQuire MH, Chairman) · albme.gov (PDF) · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  4. Ali2009 FETCHED T2

    Intravenous Micronutrient Therapy (Myers' Cocktail) for Fibromyalgia: A Placebo-Controlled Pilot Study

    Ali A, Njike VY, Northrup V, et al. · J Altern Complement Med · 2009 · verified 2026-10-30

  5. Altman2002-Magpie FETCHED T1

    Do women with pre-eclampsia, and their babies, benefit from magnesium sulphate? The Magpie Trial: a randomised placebo-controlled trial

    Altman D, Carroli G, Duley L, Farrell B, Moodley J, Neilson J, Smith D; Magpie Trial Collaborative Group · Lancet · 2002 · verified 2026-10-30

  6. AMA-InformedConsent FETCHED T5

    AMA Code of Medical Ethics Opinion 2.1.1: Informed Consent

    American Medical Association · code-medical-ethics.ama-assn.org · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  7. AMA-MedSpa-2026 FETCHED T5

    36 states lack regulatory oversight of med spas

    Smith TM (AMA News Wire) · ama-assn.org · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  8. AMA-PhysicianLed-2025 FETCHED T5

    Patients Deserve to Know Who Is Providing Their Care: Protect patients with physician-led care at medical spas (issue brief)

    American Medical Association · ama-assn.org (PDF) · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  9. AmSpa-JAMA-2025 FETCHED T5

    JAMA Study Finds Inconsistent IV Hydration Spa Oversight

    American Med Spa Association · americanmedspa.org news (trade association; secondary) · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  10. AmSpa-States-2023 FETCHED T5

    More States Release Guidance for IV Therapy Following Alabama's Declaratory Ruling

    Adatto BE (ByrdAdatto) for American Med Spa Association · americanmedspa.org blog (trade association; secondary) · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  11. AntequeraMartin2019 SEARCH_ONLY T1

    Buffered solutions versus 0.9% saline for resuscitation in critically ill adults and children

    Antequera Martín AM, et al. (author list not retrieved) · Cochrane Database Syst Rev · 2019 · verified 2026-10-30

  12. ANTT2024 FETCHED T5

    Association for Safe Aseptic Practice - ANTT Clinical Practice Framework (2024 update page)

    Association for Safe Aseptic Practice · antt.org · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  13. ASA-GetADrip-2023 FETCHED T5

    ASA Ruling on Get A Drip Ltd (A19-549582)

    Advertising Standards Authority (UK) · asa.org.uk rulings · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  14. ASA-GMG-2023 FETCHED T5

    ASA Ruling on GMG Pharmacy Ltd t/a The IV Clinic (A19-549495)

    Advertising Standards Authority (UK) · asa.org.uk rulings · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  15. ASA-REVIV-2023 FETCHED T5

    ASA Ruling on REVIV UK Ltd t/a REVIV (A19-562605)

    Advertising Standards Authority (UK) · asa.org.uk rulings · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  16. ASA-REVIV-COVID-2020 FETCHED T5

    ASA Ruling on REVIV UK Ltd (G20-1058218) — coronavirus claims

    Advertising Standards Authority (UK) · asa.org.uk rulings · 2020 · verified 2026-10-30

  17. Ascor-Label FETCHED T5

    ASCOR (ascorbic acid injection) for intravenous use - Prescribing Information (NDA 209112)

    McGuff Pharmaceuticals · FDA accessdata label · 2017 · verified 2026-10-30

  18. Bannuru2015 FETCHED T1

    Effectiveness and Implications of Alternative Placebo Treatments: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis of Osteoarthritis Trials

    Bannuru RR, McAlindon TE, Sullivan MC, Wong JB, Kent DM, Schmid CH · Ann Intern Med · 2015 · verified 2026-10-30

  19. BaxterLabel-D5W FETCHED T5

    5% Dextrose Injection, USP (prescribing information, DailyMed)

    Baxter Healthcare Corporation · DailyMed (NLM) · verified 2026-10-30

  20. BaxterLabel-LR FETCHED T5

    Lactated Ringer's Injection, USP (prescribing information, DailyMed)

    Baxter Healthcare Corporation · DailyMed (NLM) · verified 2026-10-30

  21. BaxterLabel-NaCl09 FETCHED T5

    0.9% Sodium Chloride Injection, USP in VIAFLO Plastic Container (prescribing information, DailyMed)

    Baxter Healthcare Corporation · DailyMed (NLM) · verified 2026-10-30

  22. BaxterLabel-PlasmaLyteA FETCHED T5

    PLASMA-LYTE A Injection pH 7.4 (Multiple Electrolytes Injection, Type 1, USP) (prescribing information, DailyMed)

    Baxter Healthcare Corporation · DailyMed (NLM) · verified 2026-10-30

  23. BBraunLabel-KClNaCl FETCHED T5

    Potassium Chloride in 0.9% Sodium Chloride Injection (20 mEq K+/L) (prescribing information, DailyMed)

    B. Braun Medical Inc. · DailyMed (NLM) · verified 2026-10-30

  24. BDLabel-NaCl045 FETCHED T5

    0.45% Sodium Chloride Injection, USP (prescribing information, DailyMed)

    Becton Dickinson and Company / Fresenius Kabi · DailyMed (NLM) · verified 2026-10-30

  25. BDLabel-NaCl3 FETCHED T5

    3% Sodium Chloride Injection, USP (prescribing information, DailyMed)

    Becton Dickinson and Company / Fresenius Kabi · DailyMed (NLM) · verified 2026-10-30

  26. Beecham2025 FETCHED T5

    Peripheral Line Placement

    Beecham GB, Agarwal A, Tackling G · StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing (NCBI Bookshelf) · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  27. Berger2022-ESPEN FETCHED T2

    ESPEN micronutrient guideline

    Berger MM, Shenkin A, Schweinlin A, et al. · Clin Nutr · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  28. Betts2022-Ch18 FETCHED T5

    Anatomy and Physiology 2e, Section 18.1 An Overview of Blood

    Betts JG, Young KA, Wise JA, et al. (OpenStax) · OpenStax (Rice University), textbook · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  29. Betts2022-Ch19 FETCHED T5

    Anatomy and Physiology 2e, Section 19.4 Cardiac Physiology

    Betts JG, Young KA, Wise JA, et al. (OpenStax) · OpenStax (Rice University), textbook · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  30. Betts2022-Ch20 FETCHED T5

    Anatomy and Physiology 2e, Section 20.5 Circulatory Pathways

    Betts JG, Young KA, Wise JA, et al. (OpenStax) · OpenStax (Rice University), textbook · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  31. Betts2022-Ch26 FETCHED T5

    Anatomy and Physiology 2e, Section 26.1 Body Fluids and Fluid Compartments

    Betts JG, Young KA, Wise JA, et al. (OpenStax) · OpenStax (Rice University), textbook · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  32. Bonate2024 FETCHED T5

    ACCP Position Statement on Hydration and Vitamin Infusion Clinics

    Bonate PL, Prokopienko AJ, Gries JM; American College of Clinical Pharmacology Public Policy Committee · J Clin Pharmacol · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  33. CABoP2024 · CABOP-2024 FETCHED T5

    Policy Statement Related to Risks to Patients Receiving Intravenous Hydration in Unlicensed Clinics or Locations

    California State Board of Pharmacy · pharmacy.ca.gov · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  34. CABRN-2023 FETCHED T5

    Agenda Item 7.2: Presentation of Intravenous (IV) Hydration (Board meeting August 24–25, 2023)

    California Board of Registered Nursing · rn.ca.gov (PDF) · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  35. CADTH-2020 FETCHED T5

    Intravenous Multivitamin Therapy Use in Hospital or Outpatient Settings: A Review of Clinical Effectiveness and Guidelines (Rapid Response, RC1310)

    Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health (CADTH) · cda-amc.ca (PDF) · 2020 · verified 2026-10-30

  36. CantuWeinstein2024 FETCHED T3

    Diagnosis and treatment of Wernicke's encephalopathy: A systematic literature review

    Cantu-Weinstein A, Branning R, Alamir M, Weleff J, Do M, Nero N, Anand A · Gen Hosp Psychiatry · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  37. CAP-Enforcement-COVID-2020 FETCHED T5

    Enforcement Notice: Advertising IV Drips (Coronavirus/COVID-19)

    Committee of Advertising Practice / Advertising Standards Authority (UK), with MHRA position · asa.org.uk (PDF) · 2020 · verified 2026-10-30

  38. CAP-IVNT-Advice-2024 FETCHED T5

    Healthcare: Intravenous Nutritional Therapy (AdviceOnline)

    Committee of Advertising Practice (UK) · asa.org.uk advice online · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  39. CAP-News-Drips-2024 FETCHED T5

    Advertising Vitamin Drips – Injecting regulatory knowledge with a quick jab

    Committee of Advertising Practice (UK) · asa.org.uk CAP news · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  40. CAP-POM-VitaminShots-2020 FETCHED T5

    Enforcing the rules for prescription-only medicines and 'vitamin shots'

    Committee of Advertising Practice (UK) · asa.org.uk CAP news · 2020 · verified 2026-10-30

  41. Carr2017 FETCHED T5

    Vitamin C and Immune Function

    Carr AC, Maggini S · Nutrients · 2017 · verified 2026-10-30

  42. Casa2000-IJSNEM FETCHED T2

    Intravenous versus oral rehydration during a brief period: stress hormone responses to subsequent exhaustive exercise in the heat

    Casa DJ, Maresh CM, Armstrong LE, Kavouras SA, Herrera-Soto JA, Hacker FT Jr, Scheett TP, Stoppani J · Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab · 2000 · verified 2026-10-30

  43. Casa2000-MSSE FETCHED T2

    Intravenous versus oral rehydration during a brief period: responses to subsequent exercise in the heat

    Casa DJ, Maresh CM, Armstrong LE, Kavouras SA, Herrera JA, Hacker FT Jr, Keith NR, Elliott TA · Med Sci Sports Exerc · 2000 · verified 2026-10-30

  44. Casa2000-NATA FETCHED T2

    National Athletic Trainers' Association Position Statement: Fluid Replacement for Athletes

    Casa DJ, Armstrong LE, Hillman SK, Montain SJ, Reiff RV, Rich BSE, Roberts WO, Stone JA · J Athl Train · 2000 · verified 2026-10-30

  45. Castellani1997 FETCHED T2

    Intravenous vs. oral rehydration: effects on subsequent exercise-heat stress

    Castellani JW, Maresh CM, Armstrong LE, Kenefick RW, Riebe D, Echegaray M, Casa D, Castracane VD · J Appl Physiol (1985) · 1997 · verified 2026-10-30

  46. CDC-IVShortage-2024 FETCHED T5

    Disruptions in Availability of Peritoneal Dialysis and Intravenous Solutions from Baxter International Facility in North Carolina

    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion · cdc.gov · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  47. CDC2012-NECC FETCHED T3

    Multistate Outbreak of Fungal Infection Associated with Injection of Methylprednisolone Acetate Solution from a Single Compounding Pharmacy - United States, 2012

    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention · MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep · 2012 · verified 2026-10-30

  48. CDC2015-NECC FETCHED T3

    Multistate Outbreak of Fungal Meningitis and Other Infections - Case Count

    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention · CDC HAI (archived page) · 2015 · verified 2026-10-30

  49. Cellucci2025-DehydrationChildren FETCHED T5

    Dehydration in Children (Merck Manual Professional Edition)

    Cellucci MF (peer reviewed by Agus MSD) · Merck Manual Professional Edition · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  50. Cellucci2025-ORT FETCHED T5

    Oral Rehydration Therapy (Merck Manual Professional Edition)

    Cellucci MF (peer reviewed by Agus MSD) · Merck Manual Professional Edition · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  51. Chiu2016 FETCHED T1

    Effects of Intravenous and Oral Magnesium on Reducing Migraine: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

    Chiu HY, Yeh TH, Huang YC, Chen PY · Pain Physician · 2016 · verified 2026-10-30

  52. Choi2014 FETCHED T1

    The use of intravenous magnesium sulphate for acute migraine: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

    Choi H, Parmar N · Eur J Emerg Med · 2014 · verified 2026-10-30

  53. Chowdhury2012 FETCHED T4

    A Randomized, Controlled, Double-Blind Crossover Study on the Effects of 2-L Infusions of 0.9% Saline and Plasma-Lyte 148 on Renal Blood Flow Velocity and Renal Cortical Tissue Perfusion in Healthy Volunteers

    Chowdhury AH, Cox EF, Francis ST, Lobo DN · Ann Surg · 2012 · verified 2026-10-30

  54. Chrysafides2023 FETCHED T5

    Physiology, Resting Potential

    Chrysafides SM, Bordes SJ, Sharma S · StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing (NCBI Bookshelf) · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  55. Clare2018 SEARCH_ONLY T3

    Implementing the Aseptic Non Touch Technique (ANTT) clinical practice framework for aseptic technique: a pragmatic evaluation using a mixed methods approach in two London hospitals

    Clare S, Rowley S · J Infect Prev · 2018 · verified 2026-10-30

  56. ClaureDelGranado2016 FETCHED T5

    Fluid overload in the ICU: evaluation and management

    Claure-Del Granado R, Mehta RL · BMC Nephrol · 2016 · verified 2026-10-30

  57. Cloudflare-Pages-Docs-2026 FETCHED T5

    Cloudflare Pages documentation (landing page)

    Cloudflare, Inc. · developers.cloudflare.com · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  58. Cloudflare-Workers-Static-Assets-2026 FETCHED T5

    Workers Static Assets

    Cloudflare, Inc. · developers.cloudflare.com · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  59. Cossey2013 SEARCH_ONLY T3

    Oxalate nephropathy and intravenous vitamin C

    Cossey LN, et al. · Am J Kidney Dis · 2013 · verified 2026-10-30

  60. CPSO-CAM-2021 FETCHED T5

    Complementary and Alternative Medicine (policy)

    College of Physicians and Surgeons of Ontario · cpso.on.ca policies · 2021 · verified 2026-10-30

  61. CQC-TDDI-2025 FETCHED T5

    Scope of registration: Treatment of disease, disorder or injury (regulated activity)

    Care Quality Commission (England) · cqc.org.uk guidance for providers · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  62. Cyanocobalamin-Label FETCHED T5

    Cyanocobalamin Injection, USP 1,000 mcg/mL - Prescribing Information (Gland Pharma)

    Gland Pharma Limited · DailyMed · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  63. Cyanokit-label FETCHED T2

    CYANOKIT (hydroxocobalamin for injection) prescribing information

    BTG International (via Drugs.com professional monograph) · Drugs.com (FDA label reproduction) · verified 2026-10-30

  64. DailyMed-Cyanocobalamin FETCHED T2

    Cyanocobalamin Injection, USP 1000 mcg/mL label (Hikma)

    Hikma Pharmaceuticals USA Inc. · DailyMed · verified 2026-10-30

  65. DailyMed-Infuvite FETCHED T2

    INFUVITE ADULT (multiple vitamins injection) label

    Sandoz Inc. · DailyMed · verified 2026-10-30

  66. DailyMed-Multitrace5 FETCHED T2

    MULTITRACE-5 (trace elements 5) injection label

    American Regent, Inc. · DailyMed · verified 2026-10-30

  67. DailyMed-SeleniousAcid-2021 FETCHED T2

    Selenious Acid Injection label (American Regent), revised 8/2021

    American Regent, Inc. · DailyMed · 2021 · verified 2026-10-30

  68. DailyMed-Thiamine FETCHED T2

    Thiamine Hydrochloride Injection, USP 100 mg/mL label (Dr. Reddy's)

    Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Inc. · DailyMed · verified 2026-10-30

  69. DailyMed-Venofer-2026 FETCHED T2

    VENOFER (iron sucrose) injection label, revised 3/2026

    American Regent, Inc. · DailyMed · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  70. DailyMed-ZincSulfate FETCHED T2

    Zinc Sulfate Injection label (Apotex)

    Apotex Corp · DailyMed · verified 2026-10-30

  71. daSilva2020-ASPEN · daSilva2020 FETCHED T2

    ASPEN Consensus Recommendations for Refeeding Syndrome

    da Silva JSV, Seres DS, Sabino K, et al. (ASPEN Parenteral Nutrition Safety and Clinical Practice Committees) · Nutr Clin Pract · 2020 · verified 2026-10-30

  72. Day2013 FETCHED T1

    Thiamine for prevention and treatment of Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome in people who abuse alcohol

    Day E, Bentham PW, Callaghan R, Kuruvilla T, George S · Cochrane Database Syst Rev · 2013 · verified 2026-10-30

  73. deBaaij2015 FETCHED T5

    Magnesium in man: implications for health and disease

    de Baaij JH, Hoenderop JG, Bindels RJ · Physiol Rev · 2015 · verified 2026-10-30

  74. deCraen2000 FETCHED T1

    Placebo effect in the acute treatment of migraine: subcutaneous placebos are better than oral placebos

    de Craen AJM, Tijssen JGP, de Gans J, Kleijnen J · J Neurol · 2000 · verified 2026-10-30

  75. Dilokthornsakul2019 FETCHED T1

    The clinical effect of glutathione on skin color and other related skin conditions: A systematic review

    Dilokthornsakul W, Dhippayom T, Dilokthornsakul P · J Cosmet Dermatol · 2019 · verified 2026-10-30

  76. DOJ-PR-WebGuidance-2022 FETCHED T5

    Justice Department Issues Web Accessibility Guidance Under the Americans with Disabilities Act

    U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs · justice.gov press release · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  77. DOJ-WebGuidance-2022 FETCHED T5

    Guidance on Web Accessibility and the ADA

    U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division · ada.gov (PDF) · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  78. Duley2010 FETCHED T1

    Magnesium sulphate and other anticonvulsants for women with pre-eclampsia

    Duley L, Gulmezoglu AM, Henderson-Smart DJ, Chou D · Cochrane Database Syst Rev · 2010 · verified 2026-10-30

  79. Duley2022 FETCHED T1

    Magnesium sulphate versus diazepam for eclampsia

    Duley L, Henderson-Smart DJ, Walker GJA, Chou D · Cochrane Database Syst Rev · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  80. FDA-503A-BulksList-2026 FETCHED T5

    Bulk Drug Substances Nominated for Use in Compounding Under Section 503A of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (Category 1, 2, 3 lists)

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration · fda.gov (PDF attachment) · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  81. FDA-503A-BulksPage-2026 FETCHED T5

    Bulk Drug Substances Used in Compounding Under Section 503A of the FD&C Act

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration · fda.gov · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  82. FDA-Ascor-2017 FETCHED T2

    ASCOR (ascorbic acid injection) prescribing information, NDA 209112

    McGuff Pharmaceuticals / US FDA · FDA Drugs@FDA label · 2017 · verified 2026-10-30

  83. FDA-CompoundingLaws-2024 FETCHED T5

    Human Drug Compounding Laws

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration · fda.gov · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  84. FDA-CompoundingQA-2025 FETCHED T5

    Compounding and the FDA: Questions and Answers

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration · fda.gov · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  85. FDA-FDCProvisions-2021 FETCHED T5

    FD&C Act Provisions that Apply to Human Drug Compounding

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration · fda.gov · 2021 · verified 2026-10-30

  86. FDA-Feraheme-2015 FETCHED T5

    FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA strengthens warnings and changes prescribing instructions to decrease the risk of serious allergic reactions with anemia drug Feraheme (ferumoxytol)

    US Food and Drug Administration · fda.gov · 2015 · verified 2026-10-30

  87. FDA-FR-TempCompounding-2024 FETCHED T5

    Temporary Policies for Compounding Certain Parenteral Drug Products; Guidance for Industry; Availability (89 FR 83691)

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration, HHS · Federal Register Vol. 89 No. 201 (FR Doc. 2024-23954; Docket FDA-2024-D-4774) · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  88. FDA-Injectafer-2021 FETCHED T2

    INJECTAFER (ferric carboxymaltose injection) prescribing information, revised 04/2021

    American Regent / US FDA · FDA Drugs@FDA label · 2021 · verified 2026-10-30

  89. FDA-InterimBulksPolicy-2025 FETCHED T5

    Interim Policy on Compounding Using Bulk Drug Substances Under Section 503A of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act: Guidance for Industry

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration, CDER · FDA Guidance (Docket FDA-2015-D-3517) · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  90. FDA-IVSolutionsBulletin-2024 FETCHED T5

    IV Solutions Supply Increasing; Expiration Date Extensions (FDA bulletin)

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration · content.govdelivery.com/accounts/USFDA · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  91. FDA-MedWatch FETCHED T5

    MedWatch: The FDA Safety Information and Adverse Event Reporting Program

    US Food and Drug Administration · FDA.gov · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  92. FDA-RxRequirement-2016 FETCHED T5

    FDA issues guidance on prescription requirement under section 503A

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration · fda.gov · 2016 · verified 2026-10-30

  93. FDA-SupplementQA-2026 FETCHED T5

    Questions and Answers on Dietary Supplements

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration · fda.gov · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  94. FDA-WL-AgeManagement-2022 FETCHED T5

    Warning Letter: Age Management Institute Santa Barbara (MARCS-CMS 625261)

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Division of Pharmaceutical Quality Operations IV · fda.gov Warning Letters · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  95. FDA-WL-Thrive-2026 FETCHED T5

    Warning Letter: Thrive Health and Wellness, LLC dba Thrive Health Solutions (MARCS-CMS 714891)

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration, CDER Office of Compounding Quality and Compliance · fda.gov Warning Letters · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  96. FDA2019-Glutathione FETCHED T5

    FDA highlights concerns with using dietary ingredient glutathione to compound sterile injectables

    US Food and Drug Administration · FDA Compounding Risk Alert · 2019 · verified 2026-10-30

  97. FDA2021-HES FETCHED T5

    Labeling Changes on mortality, kidney injury, and excess bleeding with hydroxyethyl starch products

    U.S. Food and Drug Administration (CBER) · FDA.gov Safety & Availability (Biologics) · 2021 · verified 2026-10-30

  98. FDA2021-Insanitary · FDA-InsanitaryClinics-2021 FETCHED T5

    FDA highlights concerns with compounding of drug products by medical offices and clinics under insanitary conditions

    US Food and Drug Administration · FDA Compounding Risk Alert · 2021 · verified 2026-10-30

  99. FDA2024-Compounding FETCHED T5

    FDA Responses to Action Items Identified at the 2023 Intergovernmental Working Meeting on Drug Compounding

    US Food and Drug Administration · FDA.gov · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  100. Feraheme-Label FETCHED T5

    FERAHEME (ferumoxytol injection) - Prescribing Information

    AMAG Pharmaceuticals / Covis · DailyMed · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  101. Finfer2004-SAFE FETCHED T1

    A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit

    Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, et al. (SAFE Study Investigators) · N Engl J Med · 2004 · verified 2026-10-30

  102. Finfer2022-PLUS FETCHED T1

    Balanced Multielectrolyte Solution versus Saline in Critically Ill Adults

    Finfer S, Micallef S, Hammond N, et al. (PLUS Study Investigators) · N Engl J Med · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  103. Fishberg1933 FETCHED T3

    Measurement of the Circulation Time with Saccharin

    Fishberg AM, Hitzig WM, King FH · Proc Soc Exp Biol Med (now Experimental Biology and Medicine) · 1933 · verified 2026-10-30

  104. FL-HB227-Analysis-2024 FETCHED T5

    CS/HB 227 Intravenous Vitamin Treatment — House of Representatives Staff Analysis (Health & Human Services Committee)

    Florida House of Representatives staff · flsenate.gov (PDF) · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  105. Forman2009 FETCHED T5

    Glutathione: overview of its protective roles, measurement, and biosynthesis

    Forman HJ, Zhang H, Rinna A · Mol Aspects Med · 2009 · verified 2026-10-30

  106. Fowler2019-CITRIS FETCHED T1

    Effect of Vitamin C Infusion on Organ Failure and Biomarkers of Inflammation and Vascular Injury in Patients With Sepsis and Severe Acute Respiratory Failure: The CITRIS-ALI Randomized Clinical Trial

    not retrieved from fetched page (CITRIS-ALI investigators) · JAMA · 2019 · verified 2026-10-30

  107. FSMB-NABP-NCSBN-2023 FETCHED T5

    NABP, FSMB, NCSBN Join Federal Agencies in Educating Regulators and Practitioners on Risks of IV Hydration Clinics

    Federation of State Medical Boards (with NABP and NCSBN) · fsmb.org news release · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  108. FTC-EndorsementFAQ-2025 FETCHED T5

    FTC's Endorsement Guides: What People Are Asking

    Federal Trade Commission · ftc.gov business guidance · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  109. FTC-EndorsementGuides-2023 FETCHED T5

    16 CFR Part 255 — Guides Concerning Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising

    Federal Trade Commission (eCFR) · Code of Federal Regulations (88 FR 48102, July 26, 2023) · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  110. FTC-FakeReviewsRule-2024 FETCHED T5

    Federal Trade Commission Announces Final Rule Banning Fake Reviews and Testimonials

    Federal Trade Commission · ftc.gov press release · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  111. FTC-HBNR-2024 FETCHED T5

    Updated FTC Health Breach Notification Rule puts new provisions in place to protect users of health apps and devices

    Fair L (Federal Trade Commission Business Blog) · ftc.gov business blog · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  112. FTC-HPCG-2022 FETCHED T5

    Health Products Compliance Guidance

    Federal Trade Commission staff · ftc.gov business guidance (HTML and PDF) · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  113. FTC-iVBars-Final-2019 FETCHED T5

    FTC Approves Final Consent Order against Company and Owner Who Allegedly Made Unsupported Health Claims for Intravenously Injected Therapy Products

    Federal Trade Commission · ftc.gov press release · 2019 · verified 2026-10-30

  114. FTC-iVBars-Order-2019 FETCHED T5

    Decision and Order, In the Matter of A & O Enterprises Inc. and Aaron K. Roberts (Docket No. C-4670)

    Federal Trade Commission · ftc.gov case documents · 2019 · verified 2026-10-30

  115. FTC-WL-AgeManagement-2020 FETCHED T5

    FTC COVID-19 warning letter to Age Management Institute Santa Barbara

    Federal Trade Commission, Division of Advertising Practices (Serena Viswanathan) · ftc.gov warning letters · 2020 · verified 2026-10-30

  116. FTC-WL-OnusIV-2020 FETCHED T5

    FTC COVID-19 warning letter to Onus IV

    Federal Trade Commission, Division of Advertising Practices (Richard A. Quaresima) · ftc.gov warning letters · 2020 · verified 2026-10-30

  117. FTC-WL-REVIV-2020 FETCHED T5

    FTC COVID-19 warning letter to REVIV

    Federal Trade Commission, Southwest Region · ftc.gov warning letters · 2020 · verified 2026-10-30

  118. FTC2018 · FTC-iVBars-PR-2018 FETCHED T5

    FTC Brings First-ever Action Targeting 'iV Cocktail' Therapy Marketer

    U.S. Federal Trade Commission · ftc.gov press release · 2018 · verified 2026-10-30

  119. Gaby2002 FETCHED T5

    Intravenous nutrient therapy: the "Myers' cocktail"

    Gaby AR · Altern Med Rev · 2002 · verified 2026-10-30

  120. Galvin2010 FETCHED T2

    EFNS guidelines for diagnosis, therapy and prevention of Wernicke encephalopathy

    Galvin R, Brathen G, Ivashynka A, Hillbom M, Tanasescu R, Leone MA; EFNS · Eur J Neurol · 2010 · verified 2026-10-30

  121. GlobalRPh-Osmolarity FETCHED T5

    Sample Osmolarity Calculations

    GlobalRPh · globalrph.com · verified 2026-10-30

  122. Godic2026 FETCHED T5

    Intravenous longevity therapy: a critical review of evidence, mechanisms, and clinical utility

    Godic A, Townsend J · Acta Dermatovenerol Alp Pannonica Adriat · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  123. Google-Registry-app-2026 FETCHED T5

    .app top-level domain — Google Registry

    Google Registry · registry.google · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  124. Grant2019 FETCHED T4

    A Pilot Study Investigating Changes in the Human Plasma and Urine NAD+ Metabolome During a 6 Hour Intravenous Infusion of NAD+

    Grant R, Berg J, Mestayer R, et al. · Front Aging Neurosci · 2019 · verified 2026-10-30

  125. GrifolsLabel-Albutein5 FETCHED T5

    ALBUTEIN FlexBag 5% (albumin [human] U.S.P.) 5% solution (prescribing information, DailyMed)

    Grifols Biologicals LLC · DailyMed (NLM) · verified 2026-10-30

  126. Grogan2023 FETCHED T5

    Pharmacokinetics

    Grogan S, Preuss CV · StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing (NCBI Bookshelf) · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  127. GSAP-Install-2026 FETCHED T5

    GSAP Installation

    GSAP (Webflow) · gsap.com · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  128. GSAP-Pricing-2026 FETCHED T5

    GSAP Pricing / Licensing page

    GSAP (Webflow) · gsap.com · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  129. GSAP-ScrollTrigger-Docs-2026 FETCHED T5

    ScrollTrigger plugin documentation

    GSAP (Webflow) · gsap.com · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  130. Hahn2010 FETCHED T4

    Volume kinetics for infusion fluids

    Hahn RG · Anesthesiology · 2010 · verified 2026-10-30

  131. Hahn2020 FETCHED T4

    Volume kinetic analysis of fluid retention after induction of general anesthesia

    Hahn RG, Nemme J · BMC Anesthesiol · 2020 · verified 2026-10-30

  132. Hahn2024 FETCHED T4

    Accelerated lymph flow from infusion of crystalloid fluid during general anesthesia

    Hahn RG · BMC Anesthesiol · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  133. Hammond2022 FETCHED T1

    Balanced Crystalloids versus Saline in Critically Ill Adults - A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

    Hammond NE, Zampieri FG, Di Tanna GL, et al. · NEJM Evidence · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  134. Hartling2006 FETCHED T1

    Oral versus intravenous rehydration for treating dehydration due to gastroenteritis in children

    Hartling L, Bellemare S, Wiebe N, Russell KF, Klassen TP, Craig WR · Cochrane Database Syst Rev · 2006 · verified 2026-10-30

  135. Hauser2009 FETCHED T2

    Randomized, double-blind, pilot evaluation of intravenous glutathione in Parkinson's disease

    Hauser RA, Lyons KE, McClain T, Carter S, Perlmutter D · Mov Disord · 2009 · verified 2026-10-30

  136. Helm2015 FETCHED T5

    Accepted but unacceptable: peripheral IV catheter failure

    Helm RE, Klausner JD, Klemperer JD, Flint LM, Huang E · J Infus Nurs · 2015 · verified 2026-10-30

  137. Hemila2013 FETCHED T1

    Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold

    Hemila H, Chalker E · Cochrane Database Syst Rev · 2013 · verified 2026-10-30

  138. HHS-CoveredEntities-2024 FETCHED T5

    Covered Entities and Business Associates

    U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office for Civil Rights · hhs.gov/hipaa · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  139. Hospira2010-D5W FETCHED T5

    Dextrose Injection, USP (5% and 10%) - DailyMed label (Hospira; repackaged by HF Acquisition Co LLC/HealthFirst)

    Hospira, Inc. (manufacturer); HF Acquisition Co LLC DBA HealthFirst (repackager) · DailyMed, U.S. National Library of Medicine (drug label) · 2010 · verified 2026-10-30

  140. Hunter2021 FETCHED T1

    Zinc for the prevention or treatment of acute viral respiratory tract infections in adults: a rapid systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials

    Hunter J, Arentz S, Goldenberg J, Yang G, Beardsley J, Myers SP, Mertz D, Leeder S · BMJ Open · 2021 · verified 2026-10-30

  141. IBISWorld-IVHydration SEARCH_ONLY T5

    Intravenous (IV) Hydration Centers in the US - industry market research report

    IBISWorld · ibisworld.com · verified 2026-10-30

  142. Infuvite-Label FETCHED T5

    INFUVITE ADULT (multiple vitamins injection) - Prescribing Information

    Sandoz Inc / Baxter · DailyMed · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  143. INS2024 FETCHED T2

    Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice, 9th Edition

    Infusion Nurses Society (Nickel B, Gorski L, et al.) · J Infus Nurs 2024;47(1S Suppl 1) (per search listing) · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  144. ISMP2024 FETCHED T5

    High-Alert Medications in Acute Care Settings (ISMP list, 2024, as hosted by ECRI)

    Institute for Safe Medication Practices / ECRI · home.ecri.org · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  145. Jayawardena2017 FETCHED T1

    Interventions for treatment and/or prevention of alcohol hangover: Systematic review

    Jayawardena R, Thejani T, Ranasinghe P, Fernando D, Verster JC · Hum Psychopharmacol · 2017 · verified 2026-10-30

  146. Johnson-NCSBN-2024 FETCHED T5

    The Collaborative Compass: Guiding IV Hydration Regulation for Improved Patient Outcomes in Mississippi (presentation slides)

    Johnson P (Mississippi Board of Nursing) · ncsbn.org public files (2024 APRN presentation folder) · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  147. Kalra2022-IRONMAN FETCHED T1

    Intravenous ferric derisomaltose in patients with heart failure and iron deficiency in the UK (IRONMAN): an investigator-initiated, prospective, randomised, open-label, blinded-endpoint trial

    Kalra PR, Cleland JGF, Petrie MC, et al.; IRONMAN Study Group · Lancet · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  148. Kaptchuk2006 FETCHED T2

    Sham device v inert pill: randomised controlled trial of two placebo treatments

    Kaptchuk TJ, Stason WB, Davis RB, Legedza ART, Schnyer RN, Kerr CE, Stone DA, Nam BH, Kirsch I, Goldman RH · BMJ · 2006 · verified 2026-10-30

  149. KCl-Label FETCHED T5

    Potassium Chloride for Injection Concentrate, USP - Prescribing Information (Dosage and Administration)

    Pfizer/Hospira · pfizermedical.com · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  150. KedrionLabel-Kedbumin25 FETCHED T5

    KEDBUMIN (albumin [human]) 25% solution (prescribing information, DailyMed)

    Kedrion S.p.A. · DailyMed (NLM) · verified 2026-10-30

  151. Kew2014 FETCHED T1

    Intravenous magnesium sulfate for treating adults with acute asthma in the emergency department

    Kew KM, Kirtchuk L, Michell CI · Cochrane Database Syst Rev · 2014 · verified 2026-10-30

  152. Klein2015 FETCHED T5

    Detox diets for toxin elimination and weight management: a critical review of the evidence

    Klein AV, Kiat H · J Hum Nutr Diet · 2015 · verified 2026-10-30

  153. Kolikof2025 FETCHED T5

    Central Venous Catheter Insertion

    Kolikof J, Peterson K, Williams C, Baker AM · StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing (NCBI Bookshelf) · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  154. Lachance2021 FETCHED T3

    High-dose vitamin-C induced prolonged factitious hyperglycemia in a peritoneal dialysis patient: a case report

    Lachance O, Goyer F, Adhikari NKJ, et al. · J Med Case Rep · 2021 · verified 2026-10-30

  155. Lamas2013-TACT FETCHED T1

    Effect of disodium EDTA chelation regimen on cardiovascular events in patients with previous myocardial infarction: the TACT randomized trial

    Lamas GA, Goertz C, Boineau R, Mark DB, Rozema T, Nahin RL, Lindblad L, Lewis EF, Drisko J, Lee KL, TACT Investigators · JAMA · 2013 · verified 2026-10-30

  156. Lamas2024-TACT2 FETCHED T1

    Edetate disodium-based chelation for patients with a previous myocardial infarction and diabetes: TACT2 randomized clinical trial (as summarised by NCCIH)

    Lamas GA, Anstrom KJ, Navas-Acien A, et al. · JAMA (summary page: NCCIH Research Results) · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  157. Lamontagne2022-LOVIT FETCHED T1

    Intravenous Vitamin C in Adults with Sepsis in the Intensive Care Unit

    Lamontagne F, Masse MH, Menard J, Sprague S, Pinto R, Heyland DK, Cook DJ, et al. (LOVIT Investigators) · N Engl J Med · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  158. Langham-NumeracyNursing-Ch16 FETCHED T5

    A Guide to Numeracy in Nursing — Chapter 16: IV Flow Rates

    Langham J · BCcampus Open Textbook (CC BY 4.0) · verified 2026-10-30

  159. Le2026-MerckAbsorb FETCHED T5

    Drug Absorption

    Le J (peer reviewed by Vivian EM) · Merck Manual Professional Edition (web) · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  160. Le2026-MerckBioavail FETCHED T5

    Drug Bioavailability

    Le J (peer reviewed by Vivian EM) · Merck Manual Professional Edition (web) · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  161. Levick2010 FETCHED T5

    Microvascular fluid exchange and the revised Starling principle

    Levick JR, Michel CC · Cardiovasc Res · 2010 · verified 2026-10-30

  162. Levine1996 FETCHED T4

    Vitamin C pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers: evidence for a recommended dietary allowance

    Levine M, Conry-Cantilena C, Wang Y, et al. (author list not shown on fetched abstract page; first author per PNAS record) · Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A · 1996 · verified 2026-10-30

  163. Lewis2025-Hypocalcemia FETCHED T5

    Hypocalcemia (Merck Manual Professional Edition)

    Lewis JL III (peer reviewed by Braunstein GD) · Merck Manual Professional Edition · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  164. Lewis2025-Hypokalemia FETCHED T5

    Hypokalemia (Merck Manual Professional Edition)

    Lewis JL III (peer reviewed by Braunstein GD) · Merck Manual Professional Edition · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  165. Lewis2025-Hypomagnesemia · Merck-Hypomag-2025 FETCHED T5

    Hypomagnesemia (Merck Manual Professional Edition)

    Lewis JL III (peer reviewed by Braunstein GD) · Merck Manual Professional Edition · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  166. Lewis2025-Hyponatremia FETCHED T5

    Hyponatremia (Merck Manual Professional Edition)

    Lewis JL III (peer reviewed by Braunstein GD) · Merck Manual Professional Edition · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  167. Lewis2025-Hypophosphatemia FETCHED T5

    Hypophosphatemia (Merck Manual Professional Edition)

    Lewis JL III (peer reviewed by Braunstein GD) · Merck Manual Professional Edition · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  168. Lewis2026-Merck · Lewis2026-WaterSodium FETCHED T5

    Water and Sodium Balance

    Lewis JL III (peer reviewed by Jaipaul N) · Merck Manual Professional Edition (web) · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  169. Lewis2026-VolumeDepletion FETCHED T5

    Volume Depletion (Merck Manual Professional Edition)

    Lewis JL III (peer reviewed by Jaipaul N) · Merck Manual Professional Edition · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  170. LOVITCOVID2023 FETCHED T1

    Intravenous Vitamin C for Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19: Two Harmonized Randomized Clinical Trials

    LOVIT-COVID Investigators on behalf of the Canadian Critical Care Trials Group, and the REMAP-CAP Investigators · JAMA · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  171. Lykkesfeldt2019 FETCHED T5

    The Pharmacokinetics of Vitamin C

    Lykkesfeldt J, Tveden-Nyborg P · Nutrients · 2019 · verified 2026-10-30

  172. Maitland2011-FEAST FETCHED T1

    Mortality after fluid bolus in African children with severe infection

    Maitland K, Kiguli S, Opoka RO, et al. (FEAST Trial Group) · N Engl J Med · 2011 · verified 2026-10-30

  173. Maldonado2023 FETCHED T5

    Biochemistry, Hypertonicity

    Maldonado KA, Mohiuddin SS · StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing (NCBI Bookshelf) · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  174. Maragakis2009 FETCHED T3

    Sphingomonas paucimobilis Bloodstream Infections Associated with Contaminated Intravenous Fentanyl

    Maragakis LL, Chaiwarith R, Srinivasan A, et al. · Emerg Infect Dis · 2009 · verified 2026-10-30

  175. Marik2019 FETCHED T5

    Is intravenous vitamin C contraindicated in patients with G6PD deficiency?

    Marik PE · Crit Care · 2019 · verified 2026-10-30

  176. Markun2021 FETCHED T1

    Effects of Vitamin B12 Supplementation on Cognitive Function, Depressive Symptoms, and Fatigue: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Meta-Regression

    Markun S, Gravestock I, Jager L, Rosemann T, Pichierri G, Burgstaller JM · Nutrients · 2021 · verified 2026-10-30

  177. Marsh2018 FETCHED T3

    Observational Study of Peripheral Intravenous Catheter Outcomes in Adult Hospitalized Patients: A Multivariable Analysis of Peripheral Intravenous Catheter Failure

    Marsh N, Webster J, Larsen E, et al. · J Hosp Med · 2018 · verified 2026-10-30

  178. Marsh2024 FETCHED T1

    Peripheral intravenous catheter infection and failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis

    Marsh N, Larsen EN, Ullman AJ, et al. · Int J Nurs Stud · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  179. McCarthy2016 FETCHED T5

    Air Embolism: Practical Tips for Prevention and Treatment

    McCarthy CJ, Behravesh S, Naidu SG, Oklu R · J Clin Med · 2016 · verified 2026-10-30

  180. McKinney-ASBN-nd FETCHED T5

    IV Spa Hydration, Should I Be Doing This? (APRN Corner)

    McKinney S (Arkansas State Board of Nursing) · healthy.arkansas.gov (PDF) · verified 2026-10-30

  181. Merck-B12-2026 FETCHED T5

    Vitamin B12 Deficiency - Merck Manual Professional Edition

    Johnson LE · Merck Manual Professional · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  182. Merck-B6tox-2026 FETCHED T5

    Vitamin B6 Toxicity - Merck Manual Professional Edition

    Johnson LE · Merck Manual Professional · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  183. Merck-Folate-2026 FETCHED T5

    Folate Deficiency - Merck Manual Professional Edition

    Johnson LE · Merck Manual Professional · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  184. Merck-IDA-2025 FETCHED T5

    Iron Deficiency Anemia - Merck Manual Professional Edition

    Gerber GF · Merck Manual Professional · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  185. Merck-Myers-2025 FETCHED T5

    Intravenous Vitamin Therapy (Myers' Cocktail) - Merck Manual Professional Edition

    Shane-McWhorter L · Merck Manual Professional · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  186. Merck-Thiamin-2026 FETCHED T5

    Thiamine Deficiency - Merck Manual Professional Edition

    Johnson LE · Merck Manual Professional · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  187. Merck-VitC-2026 FETCHED T5

    Vitamin C Deficiency - Merck Manual Professional Edition

    Johnson LE · Merck Manual Professional · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  188. Mermel2017 FETCHED T1

    Short-term Peripheral Venous Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections: A Systematic Review

    Mermel LA · Clin Infect Dis · 2017 · verified 2026-10-30

  189. MgSO4-Label-AU FETCHED T5

    DBL Magnesium Sulfate Concentrated Injection - Product Information (Australia)

    Pfizer Australia · labeling.pfizer.com · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  190. MgSO4-Label-US FETCHED T5

    Magnesium Sulfate Injection, USP - Prescribing Information (Precautions and Overdosage)

    Pfizer/Hospira · pfizermedical.com · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  191. MSBML-2023 FETCHED T5

    Guidance Regarding IV Hydration Therapy

    Mississippi State Board of Medical Licensure · msbml.ms.gov (PDF) · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  192. MSBN-2025 FETCHED T5

    IV Hydration Position Statement

    Mississippi Board of Nursing · msbn.ms.gov (PDF) · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  193. Myburgh2012-CHEST FETCHED T1

    Hydroxyethyl starch or saline for fluid resuscitation in intensive care

    Myburgh JA, Finfer S, Bellomo R, et al. · N Engl J Med · 2012 · verified 2026-10-30

  194. NABP-HydrationResources-2023 FETCHED T5

    Hydration Resources (IV hydration regulator webinar resource compilation)

    National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (with NCSBN list dated July 12, 2023) · nabp.pharmacy (PDF) · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  195. NBC2025 FETCHED T5

    Hydration spas are largely unregulated, study finds (NBC News report on Sivakumar 2025)

    NBC News (byline not confirmed on fetched text) · nbcnews.com · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  196. NCI-PDQ-VitC-2025 FETCHED T5

    Intravenous Vitamin C (PDQ) - Health Professional Version

    PDQ Integrative, Alternative, and Complementary Therapies Editorial Board, National Cancer Institute · cancer.gov · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  197. NDBON-2024 FETCHED T5

    Role of the Licensed Nurse in Retail Intravenous Therapy Settings (practice guidance)

    North Dakota Board of Nursing · ndbon.org (PDF) · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  198. NHIA-Joint-2022 FETCHED T5

    Statement on the Need for State and FDA Review of Direct Access Intravenous Therapy Businesses

    National Home Infusion Association; American Society of Health-System Pharmacists; American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition; Infusion Nurses Society; National Association for Home Care and Hospice; National Infusion Center Association · nhia.org (PDF) · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  199. NICE-CG174 FETCHED T2

    Intravenous fluid therapy in adults in hospital (Clinical guideline CG174)

    National Institute for Health and Care Excellence · NICE · 2013 · verified 2026-10-30

  200. NICE2006-CG32 FETCHED T2

    Nutrition support for adults: oral nutrition support, enteral tube feeding and parenteral nutrition (Clinical guideline CG32) - Recommendations chapter

    National Institute for Health and Care Excellence · NICE guidance · 2006 · verified 2026-10-30

  201. NICE2013-CG174 FETCHED T2

    Intravenous fluid therapy in adults in hospital (Clinical guideline CG174)

    National Institute for Health and Care Excellence · NICE guidance · 2013 · verified 2026-10-30

  202. NIHODS2022-Riboflavin · ODS-Riboflavin-2022 FETCHED T5

    Riboflavin - Health Professional Fact Sheet

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · NIH Office of Dietary Supplements (web) · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  203. NIHODS2025-VitC · ODS-VitC-2025 · NIH-ODS-VitC-2025 · ODS-VitaminC FETCHED T5

    Vitamin C - Health Professional Fact Sheet

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · NIH Office of Dietary Supplements (web) · 2025 · verified 2026-10-30

  204. ODS-B12-2024 · NIH-ODS-B12-2024 · ODS-B12 FETCHED T5

    Vitamin B12 - Health Professional Fact Sheet

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · ods.od.nih.gov · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  205. ODS-B6-2023 · ODS-B6 FETCHED T5

    Vitamin B6 - Health Professional Fact Sheet

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · ods.od.nih.gov · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  206. ODS-Carnitine-2023 FETCHED T5

    Carnitine - Health Professional Fact Sheet

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · ods.od.nih.gov · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  207. ODS-Folate-2018 FETCHED T5

    Folate - Health Professional Fact Sheet

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · ods.od.nih.gov · 2018 · verified 2026-10-30

  208. ODS-Iron-2014 FETCHED T5

    Iron - Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet (page as served: Reviewed April 08, 2014)

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · ods.od.nih.gov · 2014 · verified 2026-10-30

  209. ODS-Magnesium-2026 · ODS-Magnesium FETCHED T5

    Magnesium - Health Professional Fact Sheet

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · ods.od.nih.gov · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  210. ODS-Niacin-2022 · ODS-Niacin FETCHED T5

    Niacin - Health Professional Fact Sheet

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · ods.od.nih.gov · 2022 · verified 2026-10-30

  211. ODS-Selenium-2026 FETCHED T5

    Selenium - Health Professional Fact Sheet

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · ods.od.nih.gov · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  212. ODS-Thiamin-2023 FETCHED T5

    Thiamin - Health Professional Fact Sheet

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · ods.od.nih.gov · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  213. ODS-Zinc-2026 FETCHED T5

    Zinc - Health Professional Fact Sheet

    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements · ods.od.nih.gov · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  214. OGrady2011 FETCHED T2

    Guidelines for the Prevention of Intravascular Catheter-Related Infections, 2011

    O'Grady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al.; HICPAC · CDC (guideline PDF; updated Oct 2017) · 2011 · verified 2026-10-30

  215. OKBN-2026 FETCHED T5

    IV Hydration Guidelines (OBN Policy/Guideline #P-24)

    Oklahoma Board of Nursing · oklahoma.gov/nursing (PDF) · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  216. Orr2016 FETCHED T2

    Management of Adults With Acute Migraine in the Emergency Department: The American Headache Society Evidence Assessment of Parenteral Pharmacotherapies

    Orr SL, Friedman BW, Christie S, Minen MT, Bamford C, Kelley NE, Tepper D · Headache · 2016 · verified 2026-10-30

  217. OSBN-2024 FETCHED T5

    Nursing Practice: Intravenous Hydration Therapy (Interpretive Statement)

    Oregon State Board of Nursing · oregon.gov/osbn (PDF) · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  218. Padayatty2001 FETCHED T5

    New insights into the physiology and pharmacology of vitamin C

    Padayatty SJ, Levine M · CMAJ · 2001 · verified 2026-10-30

  219. Padayatty2004 FETCHED T4

    Vitamin C pharmacokinetics: implications for oral and intravenous use

    Padayatty SJ, Sun H, Wang Y, Riordan HD, Hewitt SM, Katz A, Wesley RA, Levine M · Ann Intern Med · 2004 · verified 2026-10-30

  220. Padayatty2010 FETCHED T3

    Vitamin C: Intravenous Use by Complementary and Alternative Medicine Practitioners and Adverse Effects

    Padayatty SJ, Sun AY, Chen Q, Espey MG, Drisko J, Levine M · PLoS One · 2010 · verified 2026-10-30

  221. Paller2024 FETCHED T2

    High-Dose Intravenous Vitamin C Combined with Docetaxel in Men with Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Phase II Trial

    Paller CJ, Zahurak ML, Mandl A, Metri NA, Lalji A, Heath E, Kelly WK, Hoimes C, Barata P, Taksey J, Garrison DA, Patra K, Milne GL, Anders NM, Nauroth JM, Durham JN, Marshall CH, Markowski MC, Eisenberger MA, Antonarakis ES, Carducci MA, Denmeade SR, Levine M · Cancer Res Commun · 2024 · verified 2026-10-30

  222. Perez2013 FETCHED T2

    Intravenous 0.9% sodium chloride therapy does not reduce length of stay of alcohol-intoxicated patients in the emergency department: A randomised controlled trial

    Perez SR, Keijzers G, Steele M, Byrnes J, Scuffham PA · Emerg Med Australas · 2013 · verified 2026-10-30

  223. Perner2012-6S FETCHED T1

    Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.42 versus Ringer's acetate in severe sepsis (Supplementary Appendix, retrieved from EU Clinical Trials Register results attachment)

    Perner A, Haase N, Guttormsen AB, et al. (6S Trial Group) · N Engl J Med · 2012 · verified 2026-10-30

  224. Pfizer-MgSO4-label FETCHED T2

    Magnesium Sulfate Injection, USP 50% prescribing information

    Pfizer (Hospira) · labeling.pfizer.com · verified 2026-10-30

  225. Phytonadione-Label FETCHED T5

    Phytonadione Injectable Emulsion, USP - Prescribing Information (Baxter)

    Baxter Healthcare Corporation · DailyMed · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  226. Pittler2005 FETCHED T1

    Interventions for preventing or treating alcohol hangover: systematic review of randomised controlled trials

    Pittler MH, Verster JC, Ernst E · BMJ · 2005 · verified 2026-10-30

  227. Pomroy2019-AIS FETCHED T2

    Intravenous fluids and their use in sport: A position statement from the Australian Institute of Sport

    Pomroy S, Lovell G, Hughes D, Vlahovich N · J Sci Med Sport · 2019 · verified 2026-10-30

  228. Ponikowski2020-AFFIRM FETCHED T1

    Ferric carboxymaltose for iron deficiency at discharge after acute heart failure: a multicentre, double-blind, randomised, controlled trial

    Ponikowski P, Kirwan BA, Anker SD, et al.; AFFIRM-AHF investigators · Lancet · 2020 · verified 2026-10-30

  229. Poulin2014 FETCHED T3

    Acute oxalate nephropathy induced by oral high-dose vitamin C alternative treatment

    Poulin LD, Riopel J, Castonguay V, Mac-Way F · Clin Kidney J · 2014 · verified 2026-10-30

  230. Price2023 FETCHED T5

    Drug Bioavailability

    Price G, Patel DA · StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing (NCBI Bookshelf) · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  231. Procter2026-Merck · Procter2026-IVFluids FETCHED T5

    Intravenous Fluid Resuscitation

    Procter LD (peer reviewed by Spain DA) · Merck Manual Professional Edition (web) · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  232. Radenkovic2020 FETCHED T5

    Clinical Evidence for Targeting NAD Therapeutically

    Radenkovic D, Reason, Verdin E · Pharmaceuticals (Basel) · 2020 · verified 2026-10-30

  233. Rahal2026-BostonGlobe FETCHED T5

    People are spending hundreds of dollars at IV drip bars in Boston. Are they worth the hype?

    Rahal S · The Boston Globe (via boston.com) · 2026 · verified 2026-10-30

  234. RCUK2021 FETCHED T2

    Emergency treatment of anaphylaxis: Guidelines for healthcare providers

    Resuscitation Council UK Anaphylaxis Working Group · Resuscitation Council UK · 2021 · verified 2026-10-30

  235. Rees2018 FETCHED T3

    Massive oxidative haemolysis and renal failure caused by high dose vitamin C

    Rees MJ, Strach MC, Burbury K, Phillips KA · Med J Aust · 2018 · verified 2026-10-30

  236. Rickard2012 FETCHED T1

    Routine versus clinically indicated replacement of peripheral intravenous catheters: a randomised controlled equivalence trial

    Rickard CM, Webster J, Wallis MC, et al. · Lancet · 2012 · verified 2026-10-30

  237. Sawka2007-ACSM FETCHED T2

    American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement

    Sawka MN, Burke LM, Eichner ER, Maughan RJ, Montain SJ, Stachenfeld NS · Med Sci Sports Exerc · 2007 · verified 2026-10-30

  238. SC-JointOpinion-2023 FETCHED T5

    Joint Advisory Opinion of the South Carolina State Boards of Medical Examiners, Pharmacy, and Nursing Regarding Retail IV Therapy Businesses

    South Carolina Board of Medical Examiners; Board of Pharmacy; Board of Nursing · llr.sc.gov (PDF) · 2023 · verified 2026-10-30

  239. Sechi1996 FETCHED T3

    Reduced intravenous glutathione in the treatment of early Parkinson's disease

    Sechi G, Deledda MG, Bua G, Satta WM, Deiana GA, Pes GM, Rosati G · Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry · 1996 · verified 2026-10-30

  240. Self2018-SALTED FETCHED T1

    Balanced Crystalloids versus Saline in Noncritically Ill Adults

    Self WH, Semler MW, Wanderer JP, et al. (SALT-ED Investigators) · N Engl J Med · 2018 · verified 2026-10-30

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    Balanced Crystalloids versus Saline in Critically Ill Adults

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  243. Sevransky2021-VICTAS FETCHED T1

    Effect of Vitamin C, Thiamine, and Hydrocortisone on Ventilator- and Vasopressor-Free Days in Patients With Sepsis: The VICTAS Randomized Clinical Trial

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    Intravenous Vitamin C administration reduces fatigue in office workers: a double-blind randomized controlled trial

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    A multistate outbreak of Serratia marcescens bloodstream infection associated with contaminated intravenous magnesium sulfate from a compounding pharmacy

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    Ascorbic Acid Supplements and Kidney Stone Incidence Among Men: A Prospective Study

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    Vitamin C transporter SVCT1 serves a physiological role as a urate importer: functional analyses and in vivo investigations

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    H.B. No. 3749 (89R) — relating to the regulation of the provision of elective intravenous therapy ('Jenifer's Law'), enrolled text

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    Association Between a Chloride-Liberal vs Chloride-Restrictive Intravenous Fluid Administration Strategy and Kidney Injury in Critically Ill Adults

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    Effect of Intravenous Fluid Treatment With a Balanced Solution vs 0.9% Saline Solution on Mortality in Critically Ill Patients: The BaSICS Randomized Clinical Trial

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